ZXTape! 0Created with Ramsoft MakeTZXPHYSICS 1 uu{Fw C0:7:7::4,7;"H O M E S T U D Y" /10 ,3;"G.C.E. 'O' LEVEL PHYSICS" *12 ,6;"A.E.B. SYLLABUS 052." ((14,7;"TEACHING PROGRAMS" 2C19,7;" HOMESTUDY LTD."''" M.J.Rickards, M.Sc." <6,13 ;"1985" P0,0:7:"" Z"PHYSICS 1"1  TEACH 1 DYFf0::10 ,2;" S T O P T H E T A P E "'''" PRESS ANY KEY TO GO ON " ".2~L,44,:=""6 7:0:7::sa=9996 ':SB=9994 ':SC=9000(#:SD=9992':SF=9990':NO=9980&:NE=9981&:EO=9982&:SE=9983&:SO=9984':SW=9985':WO=9986':NW=9987' 4,7;"C O N T E N T S"''''" UNITS ................ 1"''" SCALARS AND VECTORS .. 2"''" DENSITY .............. 3"''" PARTICULATE MATTER ... 4" Q19,0;" TO ACCESS A HEADING ENTER THE CORRESPONDING NUMBER.":P$ (p$>130 2%p$<491ůp$>52430 <):9100#:200:1000*P$ o:m=110 :d$:n=2233:d$(1)+(n-2)/3,d$(nn+2):n:m "000000000018018030016016" "000002124168040040040000" "000060066066066036231000" "048072072048000000000000" "032080016032112000000000" "096016032016096000000000" "016016016124048008016056" "126171199128199171109238" ""000000012018034044064064" ,"000002036088088038000000"  c"THE A.E.B. SPECIFIES THE USE OF SI UNITS IN ALL EXAMINATIONS FORPHYSICS IN THEIR PAMPHLET 5/DM." &0,147:255,0 >''"MASS IS MEASURED IN KILOGRAMS AND HAS THE SYMBOLkg" A''"LENGTH IS MEASURED IN METRES AND IT HAS THE SYMBOL m" A''"TIME IS MEASURED IN SECONDS AND IT HAS THE SYMBOL s" K''"ELECTRIC CURRENT IS MEASURED IN AMPERES AND IT HAS THE SYMBOL A" sa :"THESE UNITS MAY BE PREFIXED WITHANY OF THE PREFIXES LISTED BELOWTO FORM NAMES AND SYMBOLS OF MULTIPLES AND SUBMULTIPLES OF THE SI UNITS:" $''"MULTIPLYING NAME SYMBOL"'" FACTOR"''" 10^6 mega M"'" 10^3 kilo k"'" 10^-1 deci d"'" 10^-2 centi c"'" 10^-3 milli m"'" 10^-6 micro "'" 10^-9 nano n" .T'"EXAMPLES FOLLOW ON THE NEXT PAGE. THESE UNITS MUST BE FULLY UNDERSTOOD.":SA 8" TIME "'''"1 s = 1000 ms"''"A CENTISECOND IS 1/100 s"''"A NANOSECOND IS A VERY BRIEF PERIOD OF TIME INDEED."''"1 s = 1000 ns." B''"NOTICE THAT PREFIXES THAT WILL MULTIPLY SECONDS ARE NOT USED IN THIS SYSTEM. INSTEAD THE PRACTICAL UNITS OF MINUTE (min),HOUR (h) AND DAY (d) ARE USED." LSA:" LENGTH "'''"1 m = 1000 mm"''"A CENTIMETRE IS RATHER LESS THANTHE WIDTH OF YOUR THUMBNAIL."''"1000 m IS 1 km"''"NANOMETRES CAN MEASURE ATOMS."''"50 m IS THE WIDTH OF THIN HAIR."''"LIGHT TRAVELS 300000 km IN JUST ONE SECOND!" VZ'''"THE UNIT OF ONE MEGAMETRE (1 Mm)IS NOT GENERALLY USED; 1000 km IS WRITTEN INSTEAD." `lSA:" MASS "'''"1 kg = 1000 g"''"1 mg = 1000 g"''"1000 kg IS A METRIC TONNE (t)"''"1 g IS 1/1000 mg" jB'''"THE UNIT OF ONE MEGAGRAM IS THE METRIC TONNE WITH SYMBOL t." tSA:" ELECTRIC CURRENT ";'''"1 A = 1000 mA"''"1000 A = 1 mA"''"A NANOAMPERE CAN COUNT ELECTRONSONE BY ONE!"''"CURRENTS MEASURED IN MA ARE OFTEN USED IN LARGE ELECTRO- PLATING PLANTS"''"ELECTRONIC EQUIPMENT OFTEN HAS CURRENTS RANGING BETWEEN 1 A TO 1 mA" ~a''"A MINI-TEST FOLLOWS NEXT AND YOUSHOULD SCORE 100% TO BE SURE YOUUNDERSTAND THESE UNITS.":SA k8,0;"TAKE CARE TO READ THE QUESTIONS CORRECTLY AND TO ANSWER EXACTLY AS ASKED.":SCR=0 T16,0;"TO SKIP THIS TEST ENTER 'S'.":I$:I$="S"I$="s":1300 VSB:"HOW MANY METRES ARE THERE IN ONEKILOMETRE?":A$:QN=1:Q$="1000":SC:SB D"WHAT IS THE SYMBOL FOR 1000 kg?":a$:qn=2:q$="t":sc:sb G"HOW MANY mA ARE THERE IN ONE A?":a$:qn=3:q$="1000":sc:sb M"WHICH IS THE SYMBOL FOR A MILLI-SECOND?":a$:qn=4:q$="ms":sc:sb B"WHICH SYMBOL MEANS 1/1000 m?":a$:qn=5:q$="mm":sc:sb Ē"RE-WRITE IN A SIMPLER FORM THE DISTANCE: ";:DS=1000*(*900+1):DS;" m":a$:qn=6:q$=(ds/1000)+" km":sc:sb ΂"WRITE THE SYMBOL OF THE UNIT WHICH WOULD BE USED FOR STATING THE WAVELENGTH OF RED LIGHT.":a$:qn=7:q$="nm":sc:sb ؞"HOW MUCH DOES ";:FR=(*400+126~):TM=(*80P+12 ):FR;" * ";TM;" kg COME TO?":a$:qn=8:q$=(FR*TM/1000)+" t":sc:sb G"HOW MANY mm ARE THERE IN 1 cm?":a$:qn=9 :q$="100":sc:sb M"HOW MANY cm ARE THERE IN 1 m?":a$:qn=10 :q$="1000000":sc:sb {scr=10 N=01:10 ,6;1;N<1;" A FANTASTIC SCORE. ":200:N:1290  ~10 ,0;"NOT GOOD ENOUGH. PLEASE TRY ONCEMORE TO SEE IF YOU CAN GET THE MAXIMUM NUMBER OF MARKS.":SA:1160  715,2;"NOW FOR SOMETHING DIFFICULT.":SA "IN ADDITION TO THE THREE BASE UNITS MENTIONED (m, kg, s) THEREARE MANY OTHER DERIVED UNITS, THOSE RELEVANT TO THE CURRENT A.E.B. PHYSICS SYLLABUS ARE SET OUT ON THE NEXT PAGE." '''"THERE IS NO NEED TO MEMORIZE THEM AT THIS STAGE AS THEY WILL BE USED FREQUENTLY LATER IN THE APPROPRIATE TEACHING PROGRAMS. THEY ARE LISTED HERE SO THAT YOUMAY REFER TO THEM SHOULD THE NEED ARISE." (4SA:5;1;1;" DERIVED UNITS " 2'"QUANTITY NAME SYMBOL AS SI UNITS"''"FREQUENCY hertz Hz 1/s FORCE newton N kgm/s ENERGY joule J Nm HEAT joule J Nm WORK joule J Nm PRESSURE pascal Pa N/m POWER watt W J/s ELECTRIC coulomb C As CHARGE ELECTRIC volt V J/C POTENTIAL"  <|"e.m.f. volt V J/C ELECTRIC farad F C/V CAPACITANCE"'"ELECTRIC ohm V/A RESISTANCE" FSA:10 А:"PHYSICAL QUANTITIES DIVIDE INTO TWO GENERAL GROUPS, THOSE THAT CANNOT BE ASSOCIATED WITH A SPECIFIC DIRECTION AND THOSE THAT MUST." '"IT IS QUITE IMPOSSIBLE TO DETACHFROM A FORCE, A VELOCITY OR A DISPLACEMENT THE DIRECTION IT ISINVOLVED WITH AND IT IS EQUALLY IMPOSSIBLE TO ASSIGN A DIRECTIONTO MASS, ELECTRIC CHARGE, VOLUMEOR TEMPERATURE." '"THE FIRST CLASS OF QUANTITIES ARE CALLED VECTORS AND THEY HAVEBOTH MAGNITUDE AND DIRECTION. THE OTHER CLASS OF QUANTITIES CAN ONLY HAVE MAGNITUDE, THEY ARE CALLED SCALAR QUANTITIES." ySA:"NOTICE THAT DIRECTION IS ONLY A RELATIVE CONCEPT AND CAN ONLY BESPECIFIED IN RELATION TO A FIXEDREFERENCE SYSTEM." '"BECAUSE THEY HAVE MAGNITUDE AND DIRECTION VECTOR QUANTITIES CAN BE VERY CONVENIENTLY REPRESENTEDBY AN ARROW. THE LENGTH OF THE ARROW INDICATING THE MAGNITUDE OF THE VECTOR AND THE ARROWHEAD POINTING IN ITS DIRECTION." +100d,10 :502,502:NE  SA:"VECTORS DO NOT HAVE TO BE AT THESAME PLACE IN ORDER TO BE EQUAL."''"FOR EQUALITY THEY NEED ONLY HAVETHE SAME DIRECTION AND MAGNITUDEAS EACH OTHER." ''"THIS MEANS THAT A VECTOR CAN BE MOVED AROUND AND STILL REMAIN THE SAME PROVIDED ITS DIRECTION AND MAGNITUDE REMAIN UNCHANGED." >eSA:"TWO VALUES OF THE SAME VECTOR QUANTITY CAN BE COMBINED INTO ANEQUIVALENT 'RESULTANT' VALUE." H'''"THIS IS DEMONSTRATED FOR TWO DIMENSIONS ON THE NEXT PAGE. THEMETHOD CONSISTS SIMPLY IN MAKINGA PARALLELOGRAM FROM THE TWO VECTORS AND DRAWING THE DIAGONALFROM THE COMMON POINT. THERE AREFOUR DEMONSTRATIONS." RqSA:120x,80P:64@,0:EO:96`,568:0,32 :NO:2140\:2150f \u0,0;"THE FIRST THING IS TO MOVE ONE VECTOR SO THAT AN END IS COMMON TO BOTH.":"PRESS 'ENTER'.";I$: fN=024:1:96`+N,568+N:0,32 :NO:0:96`+N+1,568+N+1:0,32 :NO:N pLN=3:SD: z100d:0,0;"THE PARALLELOGRAM IS DRAWN NEXT:":N=012 :10 :120x+5*N,112p:2,0:184,80P+5*N*(N<7):0,2:N i100d:LN=2:SD:"FINALLY THE RESULTANT IS DRAWN:":120x,80P:62>,32 :NE [SA:120x,80P:64@,0:EO:96`,568:-32 ,32 :NW  2140\ N=023:1:96`+N,568+N:-32 ,32 :NW:0:96`+N+1,568+N+1:-32 ,32 :NW:N LN=3:SD: 0,0;"THE PARALLELOGRAM IS DRAWN NEXT:":N=012 :10 :88X+5*N,112p:2,0:184-5*N*(N<7),80P+5*N*(N<7):-1,2:N oLN=2:SD:0,0;"FINALLY THE RESULTANT IS DRAWN:":120x,80P:32 ,32 :NE ]SA:120x,80P:64@,0:EO:96`,104h:-32 ,-32 :SW  2140\ ޛN=023:1:96`+N,104h-N:-32 ,-32 :SW:0:96`+N+1,104h-N-1:-32 ,-32 :SW:N LN=3:SD: 0,0;"THE PARALLELOGRAM IS DRAWN NEXT:":N=012 :10 :88X+5*N,480:2,0:184-5*N*(N<7),80P-5*N*(N<7):-1,-2:N pLN=2:SD:0,0;"FINALLY THE RESULTANT IS DRAWN:":120x,80P:32 ,-32 :SE \SA:120x,40(:64@,64@:NE:184,72H:-64@,0:WO  2140\ N=031:1:184-2*N,72H-N:-64@,0:WO:0:152-N,72H-N:184-2*N-2,72H-N-1:-64@,0:WO:N $LN=3:SD: .0,0;"THE PARALLELOGRAM IS DRAWN NEXT:":N=012 :10 :184-5*N,104h:-2,0:568+5*N,40(+5*N:1,2:N 8nLN=2:SD:0,0;"FINALLY THE RESULTANT IS DRAWN:":120x,40(:0,64@:NO BSA:0,0;"ANY NUMBER OF VALUES OF THE SAMEVECTOR QUANTITY CAN BE REDUCED TO JUST ONE BY COMBINING THEM INPAIRS. IN THIS EXAMPLE THE FOUR VECTORS ARE REDUCED TO ONE:" L216,92\:-32 ,32 :NW:120x,60<:64@,0:EO:24,60<:32 ,-32 :SE:80P,100d:-63?,-32 :SW QSF VUN=031:1:216-3*N,92\-N:-32 ,32 :NW `X0:216-3*(N+1),92\-(N+1):-32 ,32 :NW:N juN=018:88X+5*N,92\-5*(N-13 )*(N>12 ):2,-2*(N>12 ):N t+120x,60<:32 ,32 :NE ykSF:N=04:10 +N,11 ;" ":N:120x,60<:32 ,32 :NE ~U100d:N=096`:1:24+N,60<:32 ,-32 :SE A0:24+N+1,60<:32 ,-32 :SE:N N=012 :186+5*(N-6)*(1-2*(N>5)),30+5*N:2*(1-2*(N>5)),2:N:2460 :2470 ,120x,60<:64@,0:EO: HSF:N=08:10 +N,15;" ":N:2460 Y100d:N=039':1:80P+N,100d-N:-63?,-32 :SW M0:80P+N+1,100d-N-1:-63?,-32 :SW:N FN=012 :60<+5*N,26:2,0:N: jN=013 :120x+5*N,26+2.5 *N:2,1:N:2520 :2530 -120x,60<:0,-32 :SO: PSF:N=05:14+N,6;" ":N:2520 SA:"A VECTOR CAN ALSO BE TAKEN APARTINTO TWO OR MORE VECTORS. THIS IS CALLED 'RESOLVING' A VECTOR AND YOU ARE FREE TO CHOOSE ANY DIRECTION YOU WISH FOR RESOLVINGTHE ORIGINAL VECTOR." B'"HERE IS AN EXAMPLE:":120x,40(:0,64@:NO SF:N=014:118v+5*N,40(:2,0:125}-5*N,35#+5*N:-2,2:N SF:N=013 :568+5*N,104h:2,0:184-5*N,40(+5*N:-2,2:N ZSF:120x,40(:64@,0:EO:120x,40(:-64@,64@:NW SA:"HERE IS ANOTHER ONE.";17,0;"IN THIS ONE THE RESOLUTION IS INTO RECTANGULAR COMPONENTS:":18,5;1;"___________" S120x,60<:64@,64@:NE:BS=0:SF:2600( :26102 (}N=013 :120x+5*N,60<+BS:2,0:120x+BS,60<+5*N:0,2:N: 2SF:BS=64@:2600( 9 )*NE:1,0:1:A,B:X,Y:(N<10 )*EO+(N>9 )*NE:N:0:A,B:X,Y:NE: "THE DENSITY OF A SUBSTANCE IS SIMPLY THE RATIO OF MASS TO ITS VOLUME."''" ";1;"D";0;"ENSITY = ";1;"M";0;"ASS / ";1;"V";0;"OLUME" Œ''"SOMETIMES CONFUSION ARISES AS TOWHAT IS DIVIDED BY WHAT IN THAT EQUATION,- NOTICE THAT THE FIRSTLETTERS ARE IN ALPHABETICAL ORDER." A''"THE GREEK LETTER IS FREQUENTLYUSED TO DENOTE DENSITY.":SA >"DENSITY IS STATED IN kg/m- KILOGRAMS PER CUBIC METRE." ''"DENSITY IS STILL QUOTED, VERY OFTEN, IN THE 'OLD FASIONED' UNITS OF g/cm. CHANGING THE OLDUNIT TO THE CURRENT ONE IS NOT DIFFICULT:"''" 1 g/cm = 1000 kg/m" ''''"SOME DIFFICULTY IS SOMETIMES METIN WORKING OUT THE VOLUME OF A SOLID WITH A REGULAR GEOMETRIC SHAPE, SUCH AS A TETRAHEDRON."''"THERE IS A LIST OF THESE VOLUMESON THE NEXT PAGE." SA:"FIGURE PARAMETER VOLUME"'''"PYRAMID BASE AREA A"'" HEIGHT h Ah/3"''"SPHERE RADIUS r 4r/3"''"CYLINDER RADIUS r"'" HEIGHT h rh"''"CONE RADIUS r"'" HEIGHT h rh/3" 19,0;"A MINI-TEST FOLLOWS ON THE NEXTPAGE.":LINE=3290 :8000@::SCR=0:QN=1:LN=3130: +10 *(*10 ) aLN:LN=LN+10 :R=(*4)::"WHICH OF THE FOLLOWING:"'':LN>3220 LN=3130: yN=14:"A. B. C. D. "(3*N-23*N);:VL="24312431"(R+N):VL+31200 :VL=KQ$="ABCD"(N) YN:''"HAS A VOLUME OF:"'''"V = ";D$:8990#:QN=QN+1:QN=11 3230 0SA:3080 1 "SPHERE": 2"CYLINDER": 3 "CONE": 4 "PYRAMID": :D$="4r/3":K=1: DD$="rh/3":K=3: ND$="Ah/3":K=4: XD$="rh":K=2: bD$="Ah/3":K=4: lD$="4r/3":K=1: vD$="rh/3":K=3: D$="rh":K=2: D$="4r/3":K=1: D$="rh":K=2: xsa:"AT THE END OF THIS MINI-TEST YOUHAVE SCORED:"'''8;1;" ";SCR;" OUT OF 10 ":SCR=10 3280 ƿ10 ,0;"PRESS 'ENTER' TO TRY AGAIN TO SEE IF YOU CAN GET FULL MARKS FOR THIS TEST.":QN=1:LN=3130: +10 *(*10 ):LINE=3290 :8000@:3080 YN=020:10 ,6;(N=2*(N/2));" VERY GOOD INDEED ":N 8''''"NOW FOR SOME EXAMPLES OF THE USE OF ALL THIS." SA:2,0;"THE PRINCIPLE THAT A BODY WILL DISPLACE ITS OWN VOLUME WHEN IT IS IMMERSED IN A LIQUID IS USED A GREAT DEAL IN QUESTIONS ON DENSITY." '"HERE ARE FOUR WORKED EXAMPLES OFPROBLEMS ON DENSITY. THE BEST APPROACH IS TO HAVE A GOOD TRY AT THEM FIRST AND THEN COMPARE YOUR EFFORT WITH THE ANSWERS PROVIDED." '"YOU SHOULD AIM TO GET A MAXIMUM SCORE BUT IN ANY CASE YOU CAN PROCEED TO AN AMUSING LITTLE SUBMARINE GAME THAT FOLLOWS." bSA:"A CUBE OF PURE IRON FLOATS IN A BATH OF MERCURY WITH 0.57 OF ITSVOLUME UNDER THE SURFACE." Z'"CALCULATE THE DENSITY OF IRON KNOWING THAT THE DENSITY OF THE MERCURY IS 13.6 g/cm" PSA:"TO GET STARTED, SUPPOSE THAT THEVOLUME OF IRON UNDER THE SURFACEIS 'Vx'." n'"THE MASS OF MERCURY DISPLACED BYTHAT VOLUME IS:"''" 13.6*1000*Vf"''"(Note that 1 g/cm = 1000 kg/m)" ކ''"SINCE THE IRON FLOATS, THE MASS OF MERCURY DISPLACED MUST EQUAL THE MASS OF THE IRON PUSHING IT OUT:"''" IRON MASS = 13600*Vx" SF:LN=15:SD:100d:10 ,0;"YOU ARE TOLD, HOWEVER, THAT THE VOLUME Vx IS 0.57 OF THE TOTAL IRON VOLUME, CALL IT Vt. USING THIS IN THE EQUATION GIVES:"''" IRON MASS = 13600*(0.57*Vt)" -SF:N=031:17,N;" ":N: 0,0;"THE DENSITY OF IRON IS ITS MASS DIVIDED BY ITS VOLUME Vt:"''" = 13600*(0.57*Vt)/Vt"''" = 7750 kg/m":400:m=07:n=031:m+10 ,n;" ":n:m jSA:"A 20 cm LENGTH OF SULPHUR IN RODFORM HAS A MASS OF 813 g. IF THEDIAMETER OF THE ROD IS 5 cm WHATIS THE DENSITY OF SULPHUR?" tSF:'"THE ROD IS IN THE SHAPE OF A CYLINDER OF RADIUS = *DIAMETER."''"THE VOLUME COMES TO:"''" V = *(2.5)*20"''"i.e. 393 cm = 0.000393 m" ~g'"THE DENSITY IS THE MASS DIVIDED BY THE VOLUME:"''" = 0.813/0.000393"''" = 2070 kg/m" SA:"A HOLLOW SPHERE OF ALUMINIUM JUST FLOATS IN WATER OF DENSITY 1000 kg/m. WHAT IS THE MASS OF ALUMINIUM IF THE DIAMETER OF THESPHERE IS 16 cm?" SF:'"THE RADIUS OF THE SPHERE IS HALFTHE DIAMETER, 8 cm. THE VOLUME OF THE SPHERE IS:"''" V = 4r/3 = 4**512/3"''"i.e. 2145 cm = 0.002145 m." '"THE MASS OF WATER DISPLACED BY THE SPHERE IS:"''" 1000*0.002145 = 2.145 kg"''"AND SINCE THE SPHERE JUST FLOATSIN THE WATER THAT IS ALSO THE MASS OF THE ALUMINIUM."; SA:"A HOLLOW CONICAL PROBE IS MADE TO FLOAT IN A PROCESSING FLUID IMMERSED TO A DEPTH, h, OF 50 cmAS SHOWN IN THE FIGURE." N=04:6;10 +N,22;" ":N:4:216,120x:0,-16:N=040(:196+N/2,104h-N:40(-N,0:N:0 d6;11 ,22;"h":188,95_:NO:188,95_:0,-31:SO Đ5,0;"IF THE MASS OF THE"'"CONE IS 7 kg, ITS"'"BASE DIAMETER IS"'"36 cm AND ITS HEIGHT"'"IS 70 cm WHAT IS THE "'"FLUID'S DENSITY?" ]SF:'''"THE VOLUME OF THE"'"IMMERSED PORTION OF"'"THE CONE IS GIVEN BY:"''" V = rh/3" '"THE RADIUS r IS 18*50/70" JSF:N=012 :N,0;31-11 *(n>5);" ":N w0,0;"THE DISPLACED VOLUME, THEREFORE,IS:"''" V = *(18*50/70)*50/3"'" = 8660 cm OR 0.00866 m" sf:'"SINCE THE BODY FLOATS"'"THE MASS OF FLUID"'"DISPLACED IS EQUAL"'"TO THE MASS OF THE"'"CONE. THUS THE FLUID"'"DENSITY IS:"''" = 7/0.00866"'" = 808 kg/m " 9n=05:15+n,0;31;" ":n  SA:'''"HERE IS A SUBMARINE GAME WHICH REQUIRES YOU, AS COMMANDER, TO CALCULATE THE DIVE RATE AND RISERATE OF A PROGRAMMED TORPEDO." V''"THE TORPEDO MUST DIVE UNDER THE ANTI-TORPEDO NETTING AND RISE UPTO THE TARGET." '"YOU MUST CALCULATE THE RATE OF DIVE AND THE RATE OF RISE OF THE TORPEDO BEFORE THE DEFENCE MISSILE STRIKES YOU. THE MISSILEIS LAUNCHED THE MOMENT YOU COME TO THE SURFACE AT THE START OF THE GAME."  LINE=10 :8000@ (SA:"THERE ARE THREE RATES OF DIVE AND THREE RATES OF RISE: STEEP,MEDIUM AND SHALLOW. THE BALLASTCALCULATION WILL GIVE THE MEDIUMRATE AND THE OTHERS ARE SIMPLY ONE MORE OR ONE LESS." <'"IN ALL ATTACKS THE DENSITY OF SEA WATER WILL BE 1020 kg/m. THE TORPEDO'S MASS AND VOLUME MAY CHANGE FOR EACH ATTACK." F'''"GRADES OF DIFFICULTY ARE:"''" 1 DIFFICULT"'" 2 VERY DIFFICULT"'" 3 IMPOSSIBLE":"ENTER DIFFICULTY SELECTON: ";DF: P''''"TO DIVE YOU MUST WORK OUT THE AIR VOLUME TO BE INCLUDED IN THETORPEDO'S BALLAST SO AS TO MAKE ITS DENSITY TWICE THAT OF WATER."''"EXAMPLE:"'"TORPEDO MASS = 12.24 kg"'"DEAD VOLUME = 0.005 m."''"DIVE AIR-BALLAST VOLUME IS:" Z5" V = (12.24-2040*0.005)/2040"''" = 0.001 m" d*'"ENTER 1:- THE COMPUTER DOES THE REST." n''''"TO RISE YOU MUST WORK OUT THE AIR VOLUME TO BE INCLUDED IN THETORPEDO'S BALLAST SO AS TO MAKE ITS DENSITY EQUAL THAT OF WATER."''"EXAMPLE:"'"TORPEDO MASS = 12.24 kg"'"DEAD VOLUME = 0.005 m."''"RISE AIR-BALLAST VOLUME IS:" x5" V = (12.24-1020*0.005)/1020"''" = 0.007 m" *'"ENTER 7:- THE COMPUTER DOES THE REST." 2'''"WHEN YOU ARE READY TO GO:":SF::5000 o'6;0,9 ;" SUBSTANCE "'7'"NEARLY ALL SUBSTANCES ARE EITHERSOLID, LIQUID OR GASEOUS." '5;" SOLIDS ":'"THE PRINCIPAL CHARACTERISTIC OF SOLIDS IS THAT THEY ARE RIGID AND ARE STRONG. THIS ALLOWS THEMTO RETAIN THEIR SHAPE UNDER A MODERATE STRESS." 4'"WHEN A SUBSTANCE IS SOLID IT HASA HIGH DENSITY." '"SOLIDS ALWAYS HAVE A CRYSTALLINESTRUCTURE. IN THIS STRUCTURE THEATOMS OR MOLECULES THAT MAKE IT UP ARE DISPOSED IN A REGULAR GEOMETRIC PATTERN MAKING GROUPS OF INTERLOCKING CRYSTALS." ȅSA:5;" LIQUIDS "'7''"A LIQUID IS CHARACTERISED BY ITSSMOOTH SURFACE, LACK OF DEFINITESHAPE AND ABSENCE OF RIGIDITY." !'"LIQUIDS HAVE A HIGH DENSITY." ܀'"THERE IS NO DEFINITE ARRANGEMENTOF THE ATOMS OR MOLECULES THAT MAKE UP A LIQUID AND THEY APPEARTO BE CONSTANTLY IN MOTION." '"THE PARTICLES OF THE LIQUID ARE HELD CLOSELY TOGETHER GIVING THELIQUID HIGH DENSITY AND MAKING IT PRACTICALLY INCOMPRESSIBLE." 3'"LIQUIDS ARE ABLE TO FLOW. THEY HAVE MOBILITY." SA:5;" GASES "'7''"CHARACTERISTICALLY GASES ARE HARDLY THERE AT ALL. THEY HAVE ALL THE FLUID PROPERTIES OF A LIQUID BUT ARE NOT BOUND BY A SURFACE OF THEIR OWN AND THEY THEREFORE FILL COMPLETELY ANY CONTAINER THEY ARE PUT INTO." '"GASES HAVE A LOW DENSITY." '"THE PARTICLES OF A GAS ARE WELL SEPARATED AND INTERACT ONLY VERYSLIGHTLY. THE LARGE AMOUNT OF SPACE BETWEEN PARTICLES IMPARTS COMPRESSIBILITY TO A GAS." SA:5;2,8;" SIMULATIONS ";5,2;" SOLIDS ":11 ,0;"THE PARTICLES MAKING UP A SOLID ARE ABLE TO VIBRATE ABOUT A MEANPOSITION."''"THE AMPLITUDE AND MEAN VELOCITY OF VIBRATION INCREASING AS THE"'"TEMPERATURE RISES." $#1;"PRESS ANY KEY TO GO ON." /W=0:DI=0:4130":4140, "_143,103g:42*,0:0,34":-42*,0:0,-34" ' ,G x=1+W-*(3+2*W):y=1+W-*(3+2*W) 6f8,18;" ":147+X,107k+Y:163+X,107k-Y:179-X,107k-Y @M7,18;" ":155+X,115s+Y:171+Y,115s+X Jf6,18;" ":147+Y,123{-X:163-Y,123{-X:179-Y,123{+X TM5,18;" ":155+X,131-Y:171+Y,131+X ^ ""4210r+DI h 4140, r/:5;2,8;" SIMULATIONS ";5,2;" LIQUIDS ":11 ,0;"THE PARTICLES MAKING UP A LIQUIDCAN MOVE PAST EACH OTHER AND ALLOW THE LIQUID TO FLOW."''"THEY ARE NEVERTHELESS CLOSELY PACKED THUS PRODUCING A HIGH DENSITY. NOTICE THE ABSCENCE OF A REGULAR PATTERN." t$#1;"PRESS ANY KEY TO GO ON." |0W=2:DI=90Z:4130":4140, :5;2,8;" SIMULATIONS ";5,2;" GASES ":11 ,0;"GASES ARE MOSTLY EMPTY SPACE. THE PARTICLES HAVE MUCH GREATER FREEDOM AND INTERACT VERY LITTLEAS THE DISTANCES BETWEEN THEM, IN RELATON TO THEIR ATOMIC OR MOLECULAR SIZE, ARE VAST." $#1;"PRESS ANY KEY TO GO ON." e'"THE LARGE DEGREE OF EMPTYNESS OFA GAS IMPARTS TO IT LOW DENSITY AND A HIGH DEGREE OF ELASTICITY." _142,102f:42*,0:0,34":-42*,0:0,-34" / x=10 -*21:y=14-*19 8,18;" " 7,18;" " 6,18;" " 5,18;" " 163+X,115s+Y & ""4410: 0 4330 ::5;1,8;" SIMULATIONS ";3,6;" HEATING A SOLID ":6,0;"IN THIS ANIMATION"'"PLATINUM IS BEING"'"HEATED FROM 0C TO"'"1000C. IT DOES NOT"'"MELT BUT THE INCREASE"'"IN ATOMIC MOVEMENT"'"IS SEEN." D'"AS THE TEMPERATURE RISES THE ORIGNAL CUBIC ARRANGEMENT OF THEATOMS IS PROGRESSIVELY MASKED BUT CAN STILL BE GLIMPSED FROM TIME TO TIME." Na#1;"KEEPING ANY LETTERED KEY PRESSEDSIMULATES THE TEMPERATURE RISE. PRESS 0 TO CONTINUE." X5,26;"0C" R=0:T=0 8,21;" ":184+X,109m+Y:200+X,109m-Y:216-X,109m-Y:232-X,109m+Y 11 ,21;" ":184-X,85U+Y:200+X,85U+Y:216+X,85U-Y:232-X,85U-Y 12 ,21;" ":184+X,77M+Y:200+X,77M-Y:216-X,77M-Y:232-X,77M+Y !13 ,21;" " Ƅ9 ,21;" ":184+X,101e-Y:200-X,101e-Y:216-X,101e+Y:232+X,101e+Y Є10 ,21;" ":184-X,93]-Y:200-X,93]+Y:216+X,+93]+Y:232+X,93]-Y  6,21;" " 7,21;" ":184-X,117u+Y:200+X,117u+Y:216+X,117u-Y:232-X,117u-Y \""R<9.9fffR=R+0.2~L:5,23+(R<.9ffff)+(R<9.9fff);R*100d  ="0"4650* 'X=R-*(2*R):Y= R-*(2*R)  4510 *:1,8;" SIMULATION "''"A SOLID UNDER STRESS WILL SHOW A DEGREE OF ELASTIC BEHAVIOUR INTHAT DEFORMATION BELOW A CERTAINLIMIT, THE ELASTIC LIMIT, WILL ALLOW IT TO REGAIN ITS ORIGINAL SIZE WHEN THE STRESS IS REMOVED." 4_'"A 'SLIP' IN THE CRYSTALLINE STRUCTURE IS CAUSED WHEN THE ELASTIC LIMIT IS EXCEEDED." >15,0;"ELASTIC";23;"STRESS"'"LIMIT";27;"MPa"'"=200 MPa":R=0:#1;"PRESS: 8 TO APPLY STRESS."'" 5 TO RESTART."'" 0 TO GO ON." C T=0 H?X=1-*3:Y=1-*3:Z=1-*3 R17,12 ;" ":108l+X+3*R+t,36$+Z:124|+Z+3*R+t,36$+Y:140-X+R*3+t,36$-Y \g14,12 ;" ":100d-X,60<+Y:116t+Y,60<-X:132+Z,60<+X f19,12 ;" ":108l+X+5*R+t,20-Z:124|+Z+5*R+t,20+Y:140-X+5*R+t,20-Y p16,12 ;" ":100d+X+2*r,44,+Y:116t+Y+2*r,44,+X:132+Z+2*r,44,+z z18,12 ;" ":100d+X+4*R+t,28-z:116t+Y+4*R+t,28-z:132+Z+4*R+t,28+x n15,12 ;" ":108l+X+r,524+y:124|+Z+r,524+Y:140-X+r,524-Z 7="8"R=R+.2~L:R>8t=16:r=8 =""r=0 ="0"4810 ="5"4675C =16,21+(r<.3)+(r<4);" ";25*r  4680H :"  BROWNIAN MOTION "''''"WHEN POLLEN GRAINS ARE DISPERSEDIN WATER AND EXAMINED UNDER HIGHPOWER THROUGH A MICROSCOPE, THEYAPPEAR TO BE IN CEASELESS RANDOMMOTION. THIS ANIMATION SHOWS THEBEHAVIOUR OF ONE GRAIN:" 15,0;"THE EXPLANATION FOR THIS MOTION IS THAT THE RANDOM MOVEMENT OF THE WATER MOLECULES CAUSE MANY THOUSANDS OF IMPACTS ON THE POLLEN GRAIN EVERY SECOND AND THIS PUSHES THE POLLEN GRAIN AROUND." ##1;"PRESS 'ENTER' TO GO ON" /G=5:H=5:A=120x:B=78N 4A=A+1-(*3):B=B+1-(*3) A=A+(A<5)-(A>235) B=B+(B<60<)-(B>93]) D1:G,H:1,1:-1,1:-1,-1 D0:A,B:1,1:-1,1:-1,-1  G=A:H=B $""6000p . 4840 7N=0:0:M=2040*(*5+3) sV=(*(2+(M8160)+(M=10200')-(M=142807))+1+2*((M12240/)+(M=142807))) 5ACB=0:IN=M/2040-V:INB=M/2040+IN &DF=1+(DF>1)+(DF=3) WACC=0:ACA=0:STOP=0:q=1:START=0:A$(2,1) RT=(*5+1):RN=170-16*(RT=2)-32 *(RT=3)-480*(RT=4)-64@*(RT=5) mPLA=16*(RT=3RT=4)+32 *(RT=5):PLB=16*(RT2)+16*(RT4) 8,4;"TORPEDO MASS = ";M/1000;" kg"''" DEAD VOLUME = 0.00";V;" m":0,84T:255,0 mDF<312 ,0;"DIVE AIR-BALLAST VOLUME ="''" V = (";M/1000;"-2040*0.00";V;")/2040"  ]DF<3''"RISE AIR-BALLAST VOLUME ="''" V = (";M/1000;"-1020*0.00";V;")/1020" 9DF=120,0;"WHEN YOU ARE READY:":SF ZK=5+25*(DF=2)+5*(DF=3)0-1:46.*(K>4)+1:1;6,10 ;(" WARNING! "K<5);4,4;(" "K<10 );K;" SECONDS TO SURFACE " n1K<5.2~L,30:1:20 xK:0: y255,127:-255,0:10 ,-40(:20,-10 :20,-30:70F,-10 ȓ30,5:20,10 :10 ,3:3,15:17,2:20,5:10 ,20:25,30 Ҝ10 +PLA,128:27,0:-1,-1:-27,0:23+PLA,132:0,-3:1,0:0,1 I112p,502:0,76L:1,0:0,-4 210-PLB,130:-4,0:0,1:1,0:193-PLB,129:18,0:-1,-1:-16,0:1,-1:14,0 N=N+10 :STOP0:200-N-PLB,130+0.001wn*(RN-N)*N:2,0:1:210-N-PLB,130+.001wn*(RN+10 -N)*(N-10 ):2,0:0 SSTART21,0;"ENTER ";("DIVE"Q=1);("RISE"Q>1);" RATE:" fQ=1A$(1)=:A$(1)>47/Q=1.5@:DV=(A$(1)-IN)*.2~L+.8L '=""ƯA$(1)>47/Q=2 Q=2A$(2)=:A$(2)>47/START=1:RS=(A$(2)-INB)*.23~k+.85Y:21,0;31 (n-RN)<55900  MQ<3STARTACC<-51:10 +PLA,128:27,0:23+PLA,132:0,-3:1,0:0,1:0:10 +PLA,121y:27,0:-1,-1:-27,0:23+PLA,125}:0,-3:1,0:0,1:Q=3 `STARTACA=ACA+1:ACB=ACB+(DV*(ACA80P)+RS*(ACA>80P)):ACC=ACC-(80P-ACA)  START1:29+(ACB-1)+PLA,124|+(ACC-(ACA-80P)):6,0:0:1:30+ACB+PLA,124|+ACC:4,0:0 N(35#+ACB+PLA,123{+ACC)X=(27+ACB+PLA)/8:Y=22-(125}+ACC)/8:1:Y,X;1;2;"":10 :Y,X;"":0:1:30+ACB+PLA,124|+ACC:4,0:0:5810  5510 >(170-ACB-(RT-1)*17.5 )>45960H 825+ACB,123{+ACC:20,0:10 J=080P:0:210-PLB,130-J:-4,0:0,1:1,0:193-PLB,129-J:18,0:-1,-1:-16,0:1,-1:14,0 *(202-PLB,126~-J)5950> 3J<6100d,127:120x,0 3:1:210-PLB,130-J:-4,0:0,1:1,0:193-PLB,129-J:18,0:-1,-1:-16,0:1,-1:14,0:J  0  1:STOP=1:5,2+2*((RT>2)+(RT>4));1;"":5:5,1;" ":STARTACA<55920     200::10 ,4;"YOU HAVE BEEN WIPED OUT!":100d:14,5;"E N D O F G A M E ":200: >10 ,8;1;1;" DIRECT HIT! ";0;13 ,3;" YOU HAVE WON THIS GAME ";15,5;" WITH DIFFICULTY ";DF;" ":200: H<1;10 ,8;"M I S S E D !":SA:3860 o p#:'"  BROWNIAN MOTION " zC'''"BROWNIAN MOTION CAN BE SEEN IN GASES AS WELL AS IN LIQUIDS." '"SMOKE PARTICLES CAN BE SEEN TO BE IN RANDOM MOTION CAUSED BY BOMBARDMENT BY AIR MOLECULES."''"TO MAKE THIS VISIBLE THE SMOKE PARTICLES ARE ILLUMINATED FROM THE SIDE AND OBSERVED THROUGH A MICROSCOPE VIEWING THROUGH THE ILLUMINATING LIGHT." '"SEEN THIS WAY THE SMOKE APPEARS AS TINY DOTS OF LIGHT AGAINST A BLACK BACKGOUND AS SHOWN IN THE FOLLOWING ANIMATION.":"PRESS 'ENTER'.";I$ >:'''"  ANIMATION "'''" SMOKE PARTICLES IN AIR" 718,0;"PRESS 'ENTER' THE INDEX PAGE." sA=0:B=0:86V,546:43+,0:0,43+:-43+,0:0,-43+ :n=04:10 +n,11 ;" ":n ,X=9 -*13 :Y=9 -*13 81;97a+x,85U+y:105i+B,75K+A 81;118v-x,85U+y:97a-b,68D-a 91;105i+y,75K+x:118v+A,68D-B 71;97a-y,68D-x:97a+a,85U+B 91;118v+x,68D-y:118v-A,85U+b ""10 a=x:b=y:6080 @7"ENTER 'S' TO SKIP THIS. ";I$:I$="S"I$="s":LINE B #/"ENTER THE LETTER FOR YOUR ANSWERHERE: ";A$ #(&A$=Q$ůA$=Q$+32 9050Z# #217,0;"NO - ";Q$ #130 2%I$<491ůI$>50230 <>:9100#:200:1000+5000*(I$=2) o:M=116:D$:N=2233:D$(1)+(N-2)/3,D$(NN+2):N:M "016016016124048008016056" "096016032016096000000000" "032080016032112000000000" "000000000000000000000000" "048072072048000000000000" "000000000254017063104048" "162004031001202061222188" "126255255255126036024024" ""056084130016124016040068" ,"000000000016124016040068" 6"000000017010018062120152" @"018132084041186092057056" J"000000000064160096032088" T"024126126255255126126024" ^"000000006015015006000000" h"000000096240240096000000"  %:'"  DISPLACEMENT " d''"WHEN A BODY CHANGES ITS POSITIONIN RELATION TO ITS SURROUNDINGS IT SUFFERS A DISPLACEMENT." h'"THE DISPLACEMENT MUST HAVE SOME DIRECTION ASSOCIATED WITH IT ANDSO IT IS A VECTOR QUANTITY." C'"THE MAGNITUDE OF A DISPLACEMENT VECTOR IS CALLED DISTANCE." {'"ALL DISPLACEMENTS THROUGH THE SAME DISTANCE AND IN THE SAME DIRECTION ARE EQUAL NO MATTER WHERE THEY TAKE PLACE." &SA:'"  VELOCITY " $C''"A DISPLACEMENT MUST HAPPEN IN A TIME INTERVAL, HOWEVER SMALL." .z'"THE RATE OF DISPLACEMENT, THAT IS THE DISPLACEMENT DIVIDED BY THE TIME IT TAKES TO HAPPEN, IS THE VELOCITY." 8_'"VELOCITY MUST HAVE A DIRECTION ASSOCIATED WITH IT AND SO IT IS A VECTOR QUANTITY." BI'"THE MAGNITUDE OF THE VELOCITY VECTOR IS THE SPEED." L^'"ALL VELOCITIES HAVING THE SAME SPEED AND DIRECTION ARE EQUAL NOMATTER WHERE THEY HAPPEN." VnSA:''"THERE ARE TWO KINDS OF VALUES FOR VELOCITY THE AVERAGE VALUE AND THE INSTANTANEOUS VALUE." `a''"THE AVERAGE VALUE IS SIMPLY THE TOTAL DISPLACEMENT DIVIDED BY THE TIME IT TOOK TO HAPPEN." j'"THE INSTANTANEOUS VALUE IS THE RATE OF DISPLACEMENT THAT EXISTSAT A PARTICULAR INSTANT IN TIME WHILE THE DISPLACEMENT IS TAKINGPLACE."''"THE CALCULATION OF INSTANTANEOUSVELOCITY IS NOT SIMPLE." t/SA:'"  AN IMPORTANT DIFFERENCE " ~''"CONSIDER THE DISPLACEMENT OF THEPOINT X TO X'. NOTICE THAT ALL THE PATHS ARE DIFFERENT BUT"'"ALL THE DISPLACEMENTS START"'"AND END AT THE SAME PLACES"'"AND AT THE SAME TIMES.":SB 81;7,30;"X'";21,18;"X" ZN=0100d:152+100d*(*N/200),110n-100d*(*N/200):152+100d*(*N/200),10 +N:152+2*(N-502)*(N502),N+10 :2*(N502),N502:N+152,N+10 :152+N,10 +1.333*v*(N-26)*(N>25):N>25,(N>25):N t16,28;"e";18,24;"d";12 ,29;"c";16,18;"a";16,22;"b" @13 ,0;"WHICH ROUTE HAS"'"THE SHORTEST"'"DISTANCE?" |Q$="B":"ENTER YOUR ANSWER HERE: ";A$:RW=10 :CL=17:WP:A$=Q$ůA$=Q$+32 13 ,0;"CORRECT" Y15,0;"THE SHORTEST PATH"'"IS CERTAINLY THE"'"STRAIGHT LINE"'"FROM X TO X'" !SB:CL=17:RW=8:WP H13 ,0;"WHICH ROUTE HAS"'"THE SHORTEST"'"DISPLACEMENT?":SB Y13 ,0;"THE DISPLACEMENT"'"FROM X TO X' IS"'"THE SAME FOR ALL"'"THE ROUTES." K'"NOTICE HOW VECTORS"'"AND SCALARS ARE SO"'"VERY DIFFERENT IN"'"MEANING." !SB:CL=17:RW=8:WP 13 ,0;"WHICH ROUTE HAS"'"THE SLOWEST SPEED?":"ENTER YOUR ANSWER HERE: ";A$:13 ,0;:A$=Q$ůA$=Q$+32 "CORRECT "'" " s"SINCE THE TIME "'"IS THE SAME FOR "'"ALL THE ROUTES"'"THE SHORTEST ONE"'"IS COVERED AT THE"'"SLOWEST SPEED." !SB:CL=17:RW=8:WP  K13 ,0;"THEN WHICH ROUTE"'"HAS THE LOWEST"'"AVERAGE VELOCITY?" SB:12 ,0;"AS THEY ALL HAVE THE"'"SAME DISPLACEMENT"'"IN THE SAME TIME"'"INTERVAL THEIR "'"MEAN VELOCITIES"'"ARE ALL THE SAME." }SA:'"  AVERAGE VELOCITY ":''"IN THE GRAPH GIVING DISPLACEMENT(s) AGAINST TIME:":1320(:1340< (7,19;"^";8,19;"s";18,22;"Time":159,116t:0,-84T:90Z,0 2160,32 :20,33!:10 ,14:10 ,12 :34",8,-/2.81333:16,-10 ,-/8: <sb:7,0;"THE VALUE FOR THE"'"AVERAGE VELOCITY"'"IS:"''" s/t":1;18,30;"t";11 ,19;"s" FL161,88X:88X,0:249,33!:0,568 Psb:13 ,0;"THIS IS THE SLOPE"'"OF THE LINE OX":18,19;"O";9 ,31;1;"X":160,32 :89Y,579 ZcSB:1,4;" INSTANTANEOUS VELOCITY ":CL=31:RW=18:WP:1320( dS10 ,26;"P":160,524:60<,60<:196,87W le361,92\:37%,0:1;9 ,22;"t";12 ,20;"s" xp4,0;"THE INSTANTANEOUS VELOCITY AT THE POINT 'P' IS THE SLOPE OF THE TANGENT AT 'P':" 2'''"THE SLOPE AT 'P'"'"IS:"''" = s/t" )sa:'"  ACCELERATION " =''"ACCELERATION IS THE RATE OF CHANGE OF VELOCITY." e'"AN ACCELERATION MUST TAKE PLACE IN A DEFINITE DIRECTION AND SO IT IS A VECTOR QUANTITY." W'"AS WITH VELOCITY, THERE ARE TWO VALUES FOR ACCELERATION: AVERAGEAND INSTANTANEOUS." a'"THE AVERAGE ACCELERATION IS THE CHANGE IN VELOCITY DIVIDED BY THE TIME IT TAKES TO HAPPEN." 0sa:'"  INSTANTANEOUS ACCELERATION " }''"THE INSTANTANEOUS ACCELERATION AT A POINT 'P' ON THE VELOCITY- TIME GRAPH IS THE SLOPE OF THE TANGENT AT 'P'." Ҙ111o,110n:0,-100d:124|,0:N=0120x:N+111o,11 +70F*((*N/86V))^2+N/4:N ܏1;16,24;"P";9 ,13 ;"^";10 ,13 ;"v";21,15;"Time":179,11 :502,502 g1;19,26;"v";21,23;"t":202,11 :0,22: 812 ,0;"THE SLOPE IS:"''" a = v/t" ,SA:"  DISPLACEMENT-TIME GRAPHS " ~''"s-t GRAPHS DESCRIBE A JOURNEY AND ALLOW CALCULATION OF VALUES OF INSTANTANEOUS VELOCITIES AT ANY PARTICULAR TIME." D'"HERE IS A TYPICAL s-t GPAPH FOR A BATSMAN SCORING TWO RUNS:" 12 ,19;"s";21,26;"Time":160,86V:0,-75K:85U,0:N=075K:N+160,11 +70F*((*N/75K))^2:N "12 ,0;"NOTICE THAT THE"'"TOTAL DISPLACEMENT"'"IS ZERO AND SO THE"'"AVERAGE VELOCITY"'"IS ZERO EVEN THOUGH"'"THE AVERAGE SPEED"'"IS HIGH." ,"SB:RW=11 :CL=18:WP 6"NOTICE ALSO THAT"'"THE VELOCITY"'"STARTS FROM ZERO"'"AT a, RISES TO A"'"MAXIMUM AT b, FALLS"'"TO ZERO AGAIN AT c."'"IT THEN INCREASES"'"IN VALUE BUT IN"'"THE OPPOSITE SENSE"'"AND FINALLY FALLS"'"TO ZERO ONCE MORE." @O1;19,21;"a";16,21;"b";12 ,24;"c" J)sa:"  VELOCITY-TIME GPAPHS " Tc''"v-t GRAPHS ALLOW THE CALCULATIONOF DISTANCE (d), INSTANTANEOUS AND AVERAGE ACCELERATION." ^:'"THE DISPLACED DISTANCE IS THE AREA UNDER THE GRAPH:" h`151,80P:0,-73I:97a,0:152,32 :80P,40( rO1;12 ,18;"v";17,18;"u";21,29;"t" |]11 ,0;"THE AREA UNDER"'"THE GRAPH IS IN"'"TWO PARTS:":sb:'''''" s1 = ut" dN=023:5:152,8+N:80P,0:N:19,25;"s1" 100d:16,0;" s2 = (v-u)t":n=040(:3:152+2*n,32 +n:80P-2*n,0:n:0:15,27;"s2":1690:1700 $SB:CL=17:RW=10 :WP: c11 ,0;"THE TOTAL AREA IS"'"THE DISPLACED"'"DISTANCE:"''" s = s1+ s2"'" = (v+u)t" c11 ,0;"THE TOTAL AREA IS"'"THE DISPLACED"'"DISTANCE:"''" s = s1+ s2"'" = (v+u)t" 1690:1730 R"THE ACCELERATION"'"IN THIS CASE IS"'"CONSTANT AND EQUAL"'"TO:"''" a = (v-u)/t" 1690:1750 v"THE EXPRESSION:"''" v";8;1;" = (v + u)"''"GIVES THE AVERAGE"'"VELOCITY FOR THE"'"TIME INTERVAL t." -sa:'"  FIRST EQUATION OF MOTION " K''"SINCE THE ACCELERATION CAN BE EXPRESSED AS:"''" a = (v-u)/t" t''"THEN BY CROSS-MULTIPLYING BY t AND ADDING u TO BOTH SIDES THE EQUATION BECOMES:"'''"  v = u + at " #''" THE FIRST EQUATION OF MOTION" -SA:"  SECOND EQUATION OF MOTION " ''"SINCE THE AVERAGE VELOCITY IS:"''" v";8;1;" = (v+u)"''"AND v = u + at"''"THEN THESE TWO EQUATIONS GIVE THE EXPRESSION:"''" AVERAGE VELOCITY = u + at" ''"MULTIPLYING THE AVERAGE VELOCITYBY THE TIME t GIVES THE VALUE OFTHE DISPLACEMENT s:"''"  s = ut + at "''" THE SECOND EQUATION OF MOTION." &.sa:'"  THIRD EQUATION OF MOTION " 0v''"BY SQUARING BOTH SIDES OF THE SECOND EQUATION OF MOTION:"''" v = (u + at)"'" = u + 2uat + at" :B'"AND TAKING A FACTOR OF 2a:"''" v = u + 2a(ut + at)" D]'"THE EQUATION CHANGES TO:"'''"  v = u + 2as "''"THE THIRD EQUATION OF MOTION." Nsa:"HERE ARE FOUR WORKED EXAMPLES."''"YOU SHOULD ATTEMPT THEM ON YOUR OWN FIRST AND THEN COMPARE YOUR ANSWER WITH THAT GIVEN IN THE TEXT." X0,120x:255,0:''"A CAR ACCELERATES AT THE STEADY RATE OF 3 m/s FOR 10 s AND THENKEEPS A STEADY SPEED FOR A FULL MINUTE. IT THEN RUNS OUT OF FUELAND SLOWS DOWN AT THE RATE OF 0.5 m/s UNTIL IT STOPS." b?'"WHAT IS THE MAXIMUM SPEED OF THECAR AND HOW FAR DID IT GO?" lDSA:"THE INITIAL VELOCITY, u, IS ZEROAS THE CAR STARTS FROM REST." v"APPLYING THE FIRST EQUATION OF MOTION:"''" V = at"''"GIVES THE MAXIMUM SPEED AS:"''" 3*10 = 30 m/s OR 30*60*60/1000"''" = 108 km/h." sa:"THE DISTANCE IS CALCULATED IN THREE STAGES."''"DURING THE INITIAL ACCELERATION THE DISTANCE COVERED IS:"''" d = ut + at = 0.5*3,10 = 150 m" ^'"DURING THE STEADY SPEED STAGE THE DISTANCE COVERED IS:"''" d = vt = 30*60 = 1800 m" sa:"FINALLY THE CAR SLOWS DOWN AT THE RATE OF 0.5 m/s. WHEN IT STOPS ITS VELOCITY, v, IS ZERO. APPLYING THE THIRD EQUATION OF MOTION GVES:"''" v = u + 2as"''" 0 = 30 -2*0.5*s"''"THIS GIVES THE DISTANCE AS:"''" d = 900/1 = 900 m." sa:''''"THUS THE MAXIMUM SPEED OF THE CAR WAS 30 m/s (108 km/h) AND THE DISTANCE COVERED CAME TO 150+1800+900 = 2850 m." zSA:"A BULLET TRAVELLING AT 600 m/s BURIES ITSELF IN A SANDBAG TO A DEPTH OF 30 cm."''"WHAT DECELERATION DOES IT HAVE?" WSB:''"THE THIRD EQUATION OF MOTION CANBE USED EFFECTIVELY:"''" v = u + 2as" ~'"PUTTING IN THE VALUES GIVES:"''" 0 = 360000 + 2*a*0.3"''"AND THE DECELERATION WORKS OUT TO BE:"''" a = -600 km/s" SA:"AN AEROPLANE FLIES DUE EAST FOR 2 h AT 300 km/h AND THEN FLIES DUE SOUTH FOR 3 h AT 200 km/h."''"HOW FAR DOES IT FLY AND WHAT IS ITS AVERAGE SPEED?"''"WHAT IS ITS DISPLACEMENT AND AVERAGE VELOCITY?" HSB:''"THE TOTAL DISTANCE IT FLIES IS:"''" 300*2 + 200*3 = 1200 km." 2'"THE AVERAGE SPEED IS:"''" 1200/5 = 240 km/h" ڈSA:"THE DISPLACEMENT IS SHOWN AS s IN THE VECTOR DIAGRAM AND IT HASTHE VALUE:"''"s = ((600)+(600)) "'" = 1.414*600 = 848 km S-E" 148,103g:80P,0:0,-80P:220,103g:EO:228,31:SO:14,22;"s";8,21;"600km";13 ,29;"600"'1;30;"km" 8sb:N=079O:148+N,103g-N:N:SE e12 ,0;"THE MEAN VELOCITY"'"IS:"'1'" v";8;" = 848/5"'" = 169.6 m/s S-E" SA:"A FERRY HAS TO FOLLOW A COURSE SET AT 074 AGAINST A CURRENT OF1.4 m/s DUE SOUTH WHEN THE BOAT HAS A SURFACE SPEED OF 6 m/s."''"CALCULATE THE FERRY'S HEADING AND HOW LONG IT WILL TAKE TO SAIL 1000 m ON COURSE 074."  SB:''''"THE SIMPLEST WAY TO TACKLE THIS PROBLEM IS GRAPHICALLY. THIS IS SHOWN ON THE NEXT PAGE.":SA:"FIRST DRAW THE CURRENT VECTOR TOSCALE, DUE SOUTH:" bsb:18,19;"1.4";19,19;"m/s":176,40(:0,-28:so  hSB:0,0;"THEN THE SET COURSE OF 074 IS DRAWN FROM THE START OF THE CURRENT VECTOR:" *SB:N=080P3:176+N,40(+N/3.49_\(:176,40(+n*(n<30):n:12 ,22;"N";15,22;1;"74" 4ySB:0,0;"FINALLY AN ARC IS DRAWN CENTEREDAT THE CURRENT VECTOR'S TIP AND HAVING A RADIUS SCALED TO 4 m/s." >~248,42*:-9 ,15,/12 :175,12 :62>,44,:NE:1;18,23;"A" H]13 ,28;"R";4,0;"THE HEADING 'A' IS MEASURED AND FOUND TO BE 053." R'"THE LENGTH OF THE VECTOR 'R' IS MEASURED AND FOUND TO BE SCALED TO 3.3 m/s. THIS MAKES THE TIME TO SAIL 1000 m ON COURSE 074 TOBE 5 min." \iSA:''''''"HERE IS A MINI QUIZ TO PREPARE YOU FOR THE GAME THAT FOLLOWS:"'''6;"G E T A W A Y !" ^LINE=2330 :8000@ fCSA:SCR=0:QN=1:LN=2200+10 *(*10 ) pbLN:LN=LN+10 :R=(*5)::"WHICH OF THESE EQUATIONS:"':LN>2290LN=2220 zN=15:'" A. B. C. D. E. "(3*N3*N+2);:VL="3412534125"(R+N):VL+2190:VL=KQ$="ABCDE"(N) N:'"IS SUITABLE FOR FINDING THE:"'A$''"GIVEN THE ";B$'"AND THE ";C$;"?":8990#:QN=QN+1:QN=11 QN=10 :2300 SA:2160p "v = u + at": "v = u + 2as": "s = ut + at": ("v";8;1;" = (v + u)": "s = at": UA$="FINAL VELOCITY":B$="INITIAL VELOCITY":C$="ACCELERATION AND TIME":K=1: bA$="ACCELERATION":B$="INITIAL VELOCITY":C$="FINAL VELOCITY AND DISPLACEMENT":K=2: SA$="DISPLACEMENT":B$="INITIAL VELOCITY":C$="ACCELERATION AND TIME":K=3: MA$="MEAN VELOCITY":B$="INITIAL VELOCITY":C$="FINAL VELOCITY":K=4: bA$="DISPLACEMENT":B$="INITIAL VELOCITY":C$="FINAL VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION":K=2: >A$="ACCELERATION":B$="DISPLACEMENT":C$="TIME":K=5: ZA$="TIME":B$="INITIAL VELOCITY":C$="DISPLACEMENT AND ACCELERATION":K=3: >A$="TIME":B$="ACCELERATION":C$="DISPLACEMENT":K=5: ZA$="ACCELERATION":B$="INITIAL AND FINAL VELOCITIES":C$="DISPLACEMENT":K=2: SA$="INITIAL VELOCITY":B$="DISPLACEMENT":C$="ACCELERATION AND TIME":K=3: ^SA:''''"AT THE END OF THIS MINI-TEST YOUHAVE SCORED: ";SCR;"/";QN:SCR=10 2320 N10 ,0;"TRY AGAIN TO SEE IF YOU CAN GET A FULL SCORE":2150f bN=020:2:10 ,6;(N=2*(N/2));" VERY GOOD INDEED ":N :8100:7;" G E T A W A Y ! ":''"TO AVOID RADAR DETECTION YOU AREESCAPING FROM ENEMY TERRITORY INA BALLOON."''"TO GET TO THE WAITING HELICOPTERYOU MUST PARACHUTE 2000 METRES PULLING THE RIPCORD AT THE RIGHTTIME TO AVOID CLIFFS, MINEFIELDSAND OTHER TRAPS...." $$'"WIND SPEED IS ALL IMPORTANT...." .X'"YOU HAVE ABOUT TEN SECONDS IN WHICH TO WORK OUT THE ANSWER THEN YOU MUST JUMP!" 8T'"(Enter three figures, e.g. 052 for 5.2 s. The computer does the rest.)":SA B1:0,502:21,-7:12 ,-6:9 ,-10 :6,-9 :10 ,-3:76L,0:1,-2:3,2:546,0:0,-1:63?,0:0 L<21,0;"CLIFF MINEFIELD BEACH  DRINK " V!1;19,23;"" `Z WD=.005y# =*(*67C+10 ):0,0;"WIND ";502*WD;" m/s": j.pl=1:k=0:T$=" . ":ST=0 ~V10 ,8;"COUNTDOWN: s";11 ,3;"ENTER RIPCORD TIME: ";T$;" s" n=90Z0-1 Q.1}Ln=9 *(n/9 ),30:10 ,19;(" "n<10 );N OST=0T$(1)=:T$(1)" "ST=1:11 ,23;T$ ST=1Ʀ=""ST=2 OST=2T$(2)=:T$(2)" "ST=3:11 ,23;T$ ST=3Ʀ=""ST=4 WST=4T$(4)=:T$(4)" "TM=T$:11 ,23;T$:ST=5 WN:10 ,0;30;11 ,0;31;0,0;31 Eh=1:n=030wd:h=h+.043|0 ě*(1+H*(nN);(" "(TMNk=0)) %k=1k=2:pl=22-n sk=219,22-pl;" ":h=19:pl=pl-1:y=23:x=19:pl>.9ffff2500 úplh=19:k=3:19,22;" ":x,y;1;"":x=x-3*wd:y=y-2+*2:1;x,y;"":X<1Y<32600( úPL2500 @(H+1,N)568H,N+1;" ":1:2510 8n:0,N+1;" ";H,N+1;" ":2600( ^N6H+2-((N-.5)=5),N+(N<3)+1;1;"":2600( gN>5ƺN15(H+(N>6N<8)),N+1;"";:15:8;" ":2600( O(N+.5)>22H,N+1;"";:20:8;" ":2600( ;(N+.5)=22H,(N+1.5@);"":2600( VN>14ƺN21TM>NH,N+1;"";:20:8;"_":2600( )H,N+1;"":k=1:2495 (zk010 ,10 ;" GETAWAY ! ":502:(171,19)RN=:'" THERE IS NO JUSTICE....!" *'K0SB:2700 :2710 2/10 ,10 ;"VERY SAD":SA:2370B -:'"  NEWTONS'S LAWS OF MOTION ": d'"EVERY BODY REMAINS AT REST OR INUNIFORM RECTILINEAR MOTION WHEN NOT FORCED TO DO OTHERWISE." ''"THIS STATEMENT OF NEWTON'S FIRSTLAW OF MOTION SUMMARISES THE PROPERTY OF INERTIA WHICH IS  COMMON TO ALL BODIES." '"THE UNIVERSE AROUND US WITNESSESTHE TRUTH OF THE FIRST LAW. THE NEED TO FORCE A BODY TO MOVE OR TO CHANGE ITS MOTION IS MEASUREDIN THE SECOND LAW." SA:2700 :''"THE RATE OF CHANGE OF MOMENTUM OF A BODY IS PROPORTIONAL TO ANDIN THE DIRECTION OF THE APPLIED FORCE." ''"THIS SECOND LAW OF MOTION CAN BEWRITTEN IN THE FORM OF A WELL- KNOWN EQUATION:"''" F = m*a"''"SINCE THE ACCELERATION IS THE RATE OF CHANGE OF VELOCITY." d'"NOTICE THAT THIS LAW INCLUDES ACCELERATIONS CAUSED BY CHANGES IN THE DIRECTION OF THE MOTION." jSA:2700 :''"FOR EVERY FORCE ACTING ON A BODYAN EQUAL BUT OPPOSITE FORCE ACTSON ANOTHER BODY." Y'"THIS LAW COVERS THE CASE OF TWO BODIES WHICH, THOUGH SUBJECT TO FORCES, DO NOT MOVE." '"NOTICE THAT THIS LAW INVOLVES ITERACTION BETWEEN TWO BODIES WHEN THE INTERACTIN FORCES DO NOT PRODUCE AN EFFECT ON THEIR MOTION." o'"THE WEIGHT OF A FLOATING SHIP, FOR INSTANCE, IS EXACTLY OPPOSEDBY THE UPTHRUST OF THE WATER IT DISPLACES." .SA:'"  CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM " ''"OFTEN CONSIDERED A CONSEQUENCE OF NEWTON'S THIRD LAW, THE LAW OF CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM REQUIRES THAT WHEN BODIES ACT UPON ONE ANOTHER, IN THE ABSENCEOF EXTERNAL FORCES, THEIR TOTAL MOMENTUM MUST REMAIN CONSTANT." R'"THIS LAW INVOLVES MOVEMENT SINCEMOMENTUM IS THE PRODUCT OF MASS AND VELOCITY." Z'"A GUN'S RECOIL, FOR INSTANCE, DEPENDS ON THE BULLET'S MASS AS WELL AS ITS VELOCITY." "SA:"A FEW WORKED EXAMPLES FOLLOW TO MAKE THE WORKING OF NEWTON'S LAWS MORE FAMILIAR.":0,143:255,0 ,d'''"WHAT FORCE IS NEEDED TO INCREASETHE VELOCITY OF A 20 kg MASS FROM 12 m/s TO 47 m/s IN 7 s?" 6sb:''"FORCE IS THE RATE OF CHANGE OF MOMENTUM. IN THIS CASE THE TIME FOR THE CHANGE IS 7 s AND THE MOMENTUM CHANGEs FROM 240 kgm/s TO 940 kgm/s." @;'"THE FORCE, THEN, IS:"''" F = (940 - 240 )/7 = 100 N." Jsa:"A COMPRESSED SPRING IS RELEASED BETWEEN TWO FREELY MOVING PUCKS OF 9 AND 16 kg MASS. IF THE 9 kgPUCK GETS A VELOCITY OF 12 m/s WHAT IS THE VELOCITY OF THE OTHER ONE?" T]SB:''"THE TOTAL MOMENTUM, ZERO AT THE START, MUST BE MAINTAINED:"''" m1*v1 + m2*v2 = 0" ^\'"PUTTING IN THE VALUES GIVES:"''" 9*12 + 16*v2 = 0"''"i.e. v2 = -108/16 = -6.75 m/s." hsa:"A WOODEN BLOCK WITH A MASS OF 70 kg IS WEIGHED ON A SPRING BALANCE IN A LIFT. WHAT WEIGHT IS RECORDED WHEN THE LIFT IS STATIONARY AND WHEN IS STARTS TODESCEND WITH AN ACCELERATION OF 2.5 m/s?" r'"Take g = 9.8 m/s" :sb |b''"THE WEIGHT MAY BE EXPRESSED AS 70 kg WEIGHT OR 70*9.8 = 686 N. WHEN THE LIFT IS STATIONARY." '"WHEN THE LIFT DESCENDS WITH AN ACCELERATION OF 2.5 m/s THE WEIGHT IS REDUCED TO:"''"W = 70*(9.8-2.5) = 511 N"''" = 511/9.8 = 52.1 kg WEIGHT." SA:"A CAR HAVING A MASS OF 1 t IS TOWED BY A TRUCK ACCELERATING AT0.75 m/s. WHAT IS THE TOWLINE TENSION?"''"WHEN THE CAR REACHES A SPEED OF 32 km/h THE TOWLINE SNAPS, HOW FAR WILL THE CAR TRAVEL BEFORE STOPPING UNDER A BREAKING FORCE OF 4 kN?" @SB:''"THE TENSION IN THE TOWLINE IS:"''" 0.75*1000 = 750 N" sb:12 ,0;"32 km/h = 32000/3600 = 8.89 m/s"''"A MOMENTUM CHANGE OF 8890 kgm/s IS PRODUCED BY 4000 N IN:"''" t = 8890/4000 = 2.22 s" C'"IN THAT TIME THE CAR WILL MOVE:"''" (8.89*2.22)/2 = 9.87 m." sa:"A ROCKET HAS 1.8 t OF PROPULSIONFUEL AND AN SHELL MASS OF 0.7 t.WHAT IS THE INITIAL THRUST FROM ITS ENGINES IF THE FUEL IS SPENTAT THE RATE OF 10 kg/s WITH A JET VELOCITY JUST SUFFICIENT FORVERTICAL LIFT-OFF?" M'"CALCULATE THE ROCKET'S VELOCITY WHEN THE FUEL IS SPENT."'"(g = 9.8 m/s)" ̤SB:''"THE ROCKET'S THRUST MUST PRODUCEA VERTICAL ACCELERATION EQUAL TOTHAT DUE TO GRAVITY TO BE JUST SUFFICIENT FOR LIFT-OFF:"''" F = 9.8*(1800+700) = 24.5 kN" SA:"THIS THRUST REMAINS CONSTANT DURING THE CONSUMPTION OF THE FUEL, 180 s, BUT THE MASS OF THEROCKET DECREASES STEADILY AS THEFUEL IS USED UP GIVING A FINAL ACCELERATION OF:"''" a = 24500/700 = 35 m/s" T'"THE MEAN VERTICAL ACCELERATION IS, THEREFORE:"''" a = (35 + 9.8)/2 = 22.4 m/s" A'"GRAVITY, IN OPPOSITION, REDUCES THIS TO 22.4-9.8 = 12.8 m/s" Q'"THIS NET ACCELERATION PRODUCES A VELOCITY OF:"''" v = 12.6*180 = 2268 m/s" LSA:"HERE IS A GAME THAT INVOLVES NO CALCULATIONS AT ALL AND CAN BE FUN." z'"THE 'SPACE BUGGIE' IS CONTROLLEDBY THE 5 6 7 8 KEYS IN ORDER TO STEER IT THROUGH THE TUNNEL AND AROUND THE OBSTACLES." r''"THE OBJECT OF THIS GAME IS TO GIVE AN IMPRESSION OF NEWTON'S FIRST LAW OF MOTION WORKING IN OUTER SPACE." &|'"AN INVISIBLE FORCE FIELD HOLDS YOU SAFELY LOCATED. SHOULD YOU ACTUALLY DESTROY IT YOU CAN RE- START WITH 'GOTO 3070'." 0?'"PRESS '0' TO GET OUT OF SPACE AND INTO THE NEXT SECTION." :=SA:172,140,4:172,43+,4 D72H,136:24,0:32 ,-32 :24,0:0,-32 :-32 ,-32 :-24,24:-24,0 N72H,144:28,0:32 ,-32 :28,0:0,-44,:-40(,-40(:-28,28:-20,0 X1:7:N=017:1,5+N;" ";0,5+N;" ";19,24-N;" ";20,22-N;" ";19-N,5;" ";1+N,24;" ":N:0:0 D0:FL=0:A=60<:B=122z:X=0:Y=0 ;A,B:1,1:-1,1:-1,-1 C=A:D=B ="8"X=X+.2~L ="6"Y=Y-.2~L ="7"Y=Y+.2~L  ="5"X=X-.2~L ="0"3980 >(C+2,D-1)3400H :A=A-2:B=B+2 >(C+2,D+3)3400H :A=A-2:B=B-2 >(C-2,D+3)3400H :A=A+2:B=B-2 >(C-2,D-1)3400H :A=A+2:B=B+2 A=A+X:B=B+Y D1:C,D:1,1:-1,1:-1,-1 DA,B:1,1:-1,1:-1,-1:0 3230 H.07}\(,35#: h+sa:'"  CALCUATING MOMENTUM " r{'"THE PRINCIPLE OF CONSERVATION OFMOMENTUM MAY BE EXPRESSED IN THEFORM OF AN EQUATION:"''" m1*u1 + m2*u2 = m1*v1 + m2*v2" |'"WHERE m1 AND m2 ARE THE MASSES INVOLVED IN A COLLISION, u1 AND u2 THEIR INITIAL VELOCITIES AND v1 AND v2 THEIR FINAL VELOCITIESAFTER IMPACT." '"THERE ARE TWO CASES OF IMPACT TOBE CONSIDERED: WHEN THE MASSES ADHERE ON CONTACT AND WHEN THEY REBOUND WITH PERFECT ELASTICITY."''"A REAL IMPACT TAKES PLACE IN BETWEEN THESE TWO EXTREMES." +sa:'"  CALCUATING MOMENTUM " `''"WHEN THE MASSES ADHERE THEN THE FINAL VELOCITY IS THE SAME FOR BOTH OF THEM AND v1 = v2." G'"THE GENERAL EQUATION REDUCES TO:"''" m1*u1 + m2*u2 = v*(m1 + m2)" w'"WHEN ONE OF THE MASSES IS STILL TO START WITH (u2 = 0) THEN THE EQUATION SIMPLIFIES TO:"''" m1*u = v*(m1+m2)" *'"AN EXAMPLE FOLLOWS ON THE NEXT PAGE." +sa:'"  CALCUATING MOMENTUM " ̹'"A MASS OF 2 kg HAVING A VELOCITYOF 10 m/s COLLIDES WITH A MASS OF 7 kg WHICH IS STATIONARY. AT WHAT VELOCITY DO THE MASSES MOVEAFTER THE IMPACT IF THEY STICK TOGETHER ON CONTACT?" qSB:''"THE TOTAL MOMENTUM BEFORE IMPACTIS 2*10 + 0 = 20 kg m/s."''"AFTER IMPACT THE TOTAL MOMENTUM IS (2+7)*v." G '"THESE TWO QUANTITIES ARE EQUAL:"''" 20 = (9)*v, i.e. v = 2.22 m/s" +sa:'"  CALCUATING MOMENTUM " %'''"YOU MAY LIKE TO SEE IT HAPPEN:" $SB:14,2;"u = 10 m/s" D12 ,0;31:12 ,14;" ":30 N=029 "n<1512 ,N;" " &!N=13 :.03{u\,40( 0%n13 12 ,N;" " :N=2912 ,N;" " D/n=1514,18;"v = 2.22 m/s" NN>13 8 lSN:"ENTER 0 TO GO ON, PRESS 'ENTER' TO REPEAT THE IMPACT.";I$:I$=""4360 v+sa:'"  CALCUATING MOMENTUM " p''"WHEN THE MASSES REBOUND THEN THEIMPACT GOES A STAGE FURTHER AND THE TWO MASSES SEPARATE AFTER COLLIDING." '"HERE AGAIN THE TOTAL MOMENTUM REMAINS CONSTANT AND THE MASS THAT WAS STRUCK WILL RECEIVE A FURTHER PUSH AS THE FIRST MASS BOUNCES OFF." #'"CONSIDER THIS POINT CAREFULLY." }'"THE RESULT IS THAT THE MASS THATWAS HIT GETS TWICE THE MOMENTUM IT WOULD HAVE HAD IF THE MASSES HAD JUST STUCK TOGETHER." +sa:'"  CALCUATING MOMENTUM " v''"WHEN ONE OF THE MASSES BEFORE IMPACT IS AT REST, THE GENERAL EQUATION BECOMES:"''" m1*u + 0 = m1*v1 + m2*v2" I'"IN ADDITION THE VALUE OF v2 IS GIVEN GY:"''" v2 = 2*m1*u/(m1+m2)" ?'"THE VALUE OF v1 IS GIVEN BY:"''" v1 = u*(m1-m2)/(m1+m2)" R'"THE EXAMPLE ON THE NEXT PAGE CANMAKE THE USE OF THESE EQUATIONS MUCH CLEARER." +sa:'"  CALCUATING MOMENTUM " ''"A 2 kg MASS HAVING A VELOCITY OF10 m/s HITS A 7 kg MASS THAT IS STATIONARY. AT WHAT VELOCITIES DO THE TWO MASSES REBOUND?" oSB:''"THE VELOCITY OF THE 7 kg MASS ISGIVEN BY:"''" v2 = 2*m1*u/(m1+m2)"'" = 2*2*10/(2+7) = 4.44 m/s" `'"THE VALUE OF v1 IS GIVEN BY:"''" v1 = u*(m1-m2)/(m1+m2)"'" = 10*(-5)/9 = -5.56 m/s" +sa:'"  CALCUATING MOMENTUM "  $''"YOU MAY LIKE TO SEE IT HAPPEN:" $sb:14,2;"u = 10 m/s"  B12 ,0;31;12 ,17;"":30 *n=040( 4"n<1712 ,n;" " > n=15.03{u\,40( H6n1612 ,24-n/1.75`;" " R.n1612 ,9 +n/2;" " \< n=40(12 ,30;" ";12 ,0;" " fBn=2014,18;"v2 = 4.44 m/s"'" v1 = -5.56 m/s" pJn:"ENTER 0 TO GO ON, PRESS 'ENTER' TO REPEAT."; I$:I$=""4640  z*:'"  CALCULATING MOMENTUM " ''"WHEN BOTH MASSES ARE IN MOTION BEFORE THE IMPACT, SUBTRACTING THE VALUE OF THE LOWEST VELOCITYFROM BOTH REDUCES THE PROBLEM TOCASES ALREADY STUDIED."''"THE SUBTRACTED VELOCITY MUST BE ADDED TO THE FINAL VELOCITIES WHEN THEY HAVE BEEN WORKED OUT." '"A MASS OF 2 kg HAVING A VELOCITYOF 9 m/s IS IN COLLISION WITH AMASS OF 6 kg MOVING TOWARDS IT WITH A VELOCITY OF 3 m/s. WHAT ARE THE FINAL VELOCITIES IF (i) THEY ADHERE (ii) THEY REBOUND?" SA:"THE INITIAL VELOCITIES ARE 9 m/sAND -3 m/s. SUBTRACTING -3 m/s FROM BOTH MAKES THE FIRST 9-(-3)=12 m/s AND THE SECOND 0." |'"IN CASE (i) THE VELOCITY OF THE TWO MASSES STUCK TOGETHER IS:"''" v' = 12*2/(2+6) = 3 m/s"'"GIVING v = v'+ (-3) = 0" ]'"IN CASE (ii) THE VALUE OF v2' IS2*2*9/(2+6) = 4.5 m/s AND v1' IS9*(2-6)/(2+6) = -4.5 m/s" `'"THE CORRECTED VALUES ARE:"''" v1 = -4.5 + (-3) = -7.5 m/s v2 = 4.5 + (-3) = 1.5 m/s" SF p(:"  COMPARISON OF FORCES " z'"FORCES CAN ONLY BE COMPARED BY THEIR EFFECTS. THE EXTENSION OFA SPRING IS A TYPICAL EXAMPLE. THE EXTENSION IS PROPORTIONAL TOTHE APPLIED FORCE AND IS OFTEN USED TO MEASURE FORCES." '"THERE IS, CLEARLY, A LIMIT TO EXTENSION THAT CAN BE OBTAINED FROM A SPRING BEFORE IT TAKES ONA PERMANENT SAG. THIS LIMIT IS THE YIELD POINT." '"BEFORE THAT LIMIT IS REACHED THEELASTIC LIMIT MUST BE PASSED, THIS IS THE POINT AT WHICH THE SPRING NO LONGER OBEYS HOOKE'S LAW: ""THE EXTENSION PRODUCED BY A FORCE IS PORPORTIONAL TO THAT FORCE""" SA:"HERE IS A SIMULATION OF A SPRINGBEING EXTENDED BY A SERIES OF INCREASING LOADS. THE GRAPH SHOWN ALONGSIDE ENABLES YOU TO SEE WHEN THE ELASTIC LIMIT OF THE SPRING IS REACHED." Uz=0:x=1:ld=z:'"TO LOAD THE"'"SPRING PRESS"'"6, TO UNLOAD"'"PRESS 7." 8'"THE ELASTIC"'"LIMIT IS 6 N."''"YIELD LOAD"'"IS 8 N." 4'"PRESS R TO"'"START AGAIN,"'"PRESS 0 TO"'"GO ON." 9172,120x:0,-84T:80P,0:N=08:17-N,20;(N/2N=2*(N/2));8;(" "N2*(N/2));18,22+N;N+1:172,36$+8*N*(N<10 ):2,0:180+8*N,34":0,2:N A7,20;1;"E cm";19,24;"Load (N)" 104h,0:15,0:0,120x:-15,0:0,-120x:n=04:11 +2*n,13 ;1;n:n n=09 :115s,82R+(LD>6)+2*(LD>7)-8*n:3,0:n:8,13 ;1;"cm"  EX=(LD+(Z0))/1.5@+2: 136,124|:0,-4:N=012 :131,120x-EX*N:11 ,-3*(LD>3):131,120x-EX*N:11 ,2+(LD>4):N:136,120x-12 *EX:0,-6 *11 +LD+(Z0),16;LD;"N" ˫127,80P-8*(LD+(Z0)):18,0:0,10 :-18,0:0,-8:-5,0:5,0:0,-2 ̢XLD<8180+8*LD,513+8*LD+2*(LD=6)+8*(LD=7):-7,-7-7*(LD=7)-2*(LD=6) X(LD=0);164+8*LD,28+8*LD+2*(LD=8)+7*(LD=9 ):7*(LD>0LD9 ),7*(LD>0)+2*(LD=7)+5*(LD=8):ZX=0 =""6100 5I$=:I$="7"LD=LD-1:LD<0LD=0 /I$="6"LD=LD+1:LD>9 LD=9 I$="0"7000X LD=9 Z=8 LD=6Z6210B:"THIS IS THE ELASTIC LIMIT. WHEN THE SPRING IS UNLOADED FROM THISPOINT ITS EXTENSION FOLLOWS THE STRAIGHT LINE GRAPH SHOWN." LD>6LD<9 Z6210B:"HERE THE SPRING DOES NOT STRETCHIN PROPORTION TO THE LOAD AS THEELASTIC LIMIT HAS BEEN EXCEEDED BUT UNLOADING IT WILL RETURN IT TO ITS ORIGINAL LENGTH." LD=9 6210B:"THE YEILD POINT, 8 N, HAS BEEN PASSED AND THE SPRING IS NOW PERMANENTLY STRETCHED. THE LOAD RESTS ON THE BENCH. UNLOADING NOW WILL RETURN THE SPRING ALONGA NEW PATH TO A NEW LENGTH." $ZLD6210B:"FROM NOW ON THE SPRING EXTENDS ALONG THE GRAPH SHOWS FOR THE STRETCHED CONDITION AS CAN BE SEEN FROM THE SCALE READINGS." .I$="R"I$="r":6030 8BN=015:21-N,13 ;" ":N:6060 BNN=50-1:N,0;31;" ":N:0,0;: X*sa:'"  CALCULATING MOMENTS " b^'"MOMENTS ARE ALSO CALLED 'TURNINGFORCES' BECAUSE THE MOMENT WILL PRODUCE A TURNING EFFECT." l'"THE MOMENT OF A FORCE ABOUT A POINT IS THE PRODUCT OF FORCE TIMES THE LEAST DISTANCE OF ITS LINE OF ACTION TO THAT POINT." vV'"IN THE DIAGRAM, THE MOMENT OF THE FORCE F ABOUT THE POINT P ISEXPRESSED AS F*d." ]17,20;".P";16,10 ;"^";18,9 ;"F";18,15;"d" 83S,40(:0,-35#:86V,33!:0,-3:-3,0:0,3:77M,0 xsa:12 ,0;"SOMETIMES THE LINE OF ACTION OF THE FORCE HAS TO BE PROJECTED SOAS TO FIND THE LEAST DISTANCE." .4,20;".P";6,11 ;"F" 1104h,120x:-24,24:NW:SB N=07:105i+4*N,119w-4*N:2,-2:10 :N:163,137:-38&,-38&:-3,3:3,3:3,-3:7,18;1;"d" SA:"  COUPLES "''"TWO OPPOSITE FORCES ACTING ABOUTA COMMON POINT EQUALLY SPACED FROM EACH OF THEM GIVE RISE TO A'COUPLE'." '"COUPLES ARE A SPECIAL CASE OF A MOMENT IN THAT THEY DO NOT GIVE RISE TO ANY THRUST ON THE POINT OF ACTION. COUPLES ONLY PRODUCE A TURNING EFFECT." +SA:"  PRINCIPLE OF MOMENTS " S'"WHEN A BODY IS BALANCED THE SUM OF ALL THE MOMENTS ABOUT ANY ONEPOINT IS ZERO." V'"MOMENTS HAVE THE DIRECTION OF THE FORCE THAT PRODUCES THEM. THEY ARE VECTORS." C'"A BALANCED LEVER SHOWS THE USE OF THE 'PRINCIPLE OF MOMENTS'." 16,5;"";14,6;"8N^ 9m 4m ^9N";15,9 ;"< > < >";17,5;"<","> < >"'" 4N 13m"," 8m 2N" n=04:140-n,480+n:2*n,0:n:75K,513:579,0:147,513:25,0:43+,35#:89Y,0:147,35#:491,0 40(,45-:0,-18:so:199,45-:0,-18:so:67C,46.:0,14:179,46.:0,14 R20,0;" -8*9+4*13-2*8+9*4 = 0"'"THE PIVOT THRUST IS:8+9-4-2=11 N"  SA:"  CENTRE OF GRAVITY "''"THE CENTRE OF GRAVITY OF A BODY IS THE POINT ABOUT WHICH THE SUMOF THE MOMENTS OF WEIGHT OF ALL ITS PARTICLES IS ZERO." s'"THE C. OF G. CAN BE IN THIN AIR,AS IN THE CASE OF A STOOL, AND CAN ALSO MOVE ABOUT IF THE BODY CHANGES SHAPE."  '"THE C. OF G. ALSO COINCIDES WITHTHE CENTRE OF MASS. THE WEIGHT AND THE MASS OF THE BODY BEHAVE AS IF THEY WERE CONCENTRATED ENTIRELY AT THAT CENTRAL POINT." * SA:"THE CENTRE OF GRAVITY GOVERNS THE STABILITY OF EQUILIBRIUM OF A BODY:"''"STABLE EQUILIBRIUM WHEN IT TAKESA CONSIDERABLE DISPLACEMENT OF THE BODY TO MAKE THE VERTICAL LINE FROM THE C. OF G. FALL OUT-SIDE THE OBJECT'S BASE AND SO MAKE IT FALL OVER." 4S'"UNSTABLE EQUILIBRIUM WHEN VERY LITTLE DISPLACEMENT TOPPLES THE BODY OVER." >w'"NEUTRAL EQUILIBRIUM WHEN IT DOESNOT MATTER HOW MUCH THE BODY IS DISPLACED, ITS EQUILIBRIUM WILL REMAIN STABLE." H:'"THESE THREE CONDITIONS ARE SHOWNON THE NEXT PAGE.":SA R4,7;"o";6,16;"o";5,25;"o":29,124|:30,12 ,/6:30,-12 ,/6:101e,136:60<,0,/1.6L:180,128:502,0 \010 ,3;"UNSTABLE STABLE NEUTRAL" f 20,32 :210,0:60<,33!:8,32 :-16,0:8,-32 :124|,33!:16,0:-8,32 :-8,-32 :184,33!:32 ,0:-28,14:-4,-15 pSA:"THE VECTOR PROPERTY OF MOMENTS IS USEFUL IN SOLVING PROBLEMS SUCH AS:"''"WHAT FORCE ACTING ALONG 'P' WILLJUST LIFT THE 200 kg ROLLER OVERTHE 20 cm STEP IF THE RADIUS OF THE ROLLER IS 50 cm?" z13 ,19;"P":204,70F,22:166,546:22,0:0,-7:65A,0:204,70F:-40(,0:wo usb:9 ,0;"FIRST DRAW A VECTOR"'"FROM THE CENTRE DOWN"'"SCALED TO THE WEIGHT"'"OF THE ROLLER.":20 G204,70F:0,-32 :so:17,26;"200kg" BSB:N=04:12 -N,0;20:5:N h"NOW RESOLVE 'P'ALONG"'"(i)"'"THE LINE THROUGH"'"THE CENTRE OF THE"'"ROLLER AND THE TOP"'"OF THE STEP" VSB:N=010 :204-4*N,70F-4*N:-2,-2:N _SB:'"(ii)"'"A LINE UP FROM"'"THE CENTRE OF THE"'"THE ROLLER EQUAL TO"'"THE WEIGHT VECTOR." pSB:N=016:204,70F+2*N:N:2,-2:-2,2:-2,-2 FSB:N=013 :21-N,0;19+(N>8):N P"FINALLY, COMPLETE"'"THE PARALLELOGRAM"'"TO FIND THE REQUIRED"'"VECTOR 'P'." ކSB:N=012 :204-3*N,102f-3*N:-1,-1:172,38&+3*N:0,1:N vSB:1:166,68D:-2,2:2,2:165,70F:8,0:0:WO @"PRESS 'ENTER' TO RETURN TO THE INDEX PAGE. ";I$:10 @4"ENTER 'S' TO SKIP THIS.";I$:I$="S"I$="s"LINE B JF"ENTER 'S' TO SKIP THIS.";I$:I$="S"I$="s"2700 :2710 L #;"ENTER THE LETTER FOR THE ANSWER YOU CHOOSE HERE: ";A$: #(&A$=Q$ůA$=Q$+32 9050Z# #219,0;"NO- ";Q$ #<'"YOUR SCORE IS ";SCR;"/";QN #F #Z;19,0;"CORRECT.":SCR=SCR+1:9020<# #0#1;"  C O M P U T I N G ": &H0N=0RW:21-N,0;CL;" ":N: &7-2,0:2,0:0,-2: &8-2,-2:2,2:-2,2: &6-2,0:2,0:0,2: &7-2,2:2,-2:2,2: &72,0:-2,0:0,-2: &8-2,-2:2,2:2,-2: &72,-2:-2,2:2,2: ' "PRESS 'ENTER'. ";I$: ' "PRESS 'ENTER'. ";I$:: ' '"TEACH 2"1 &H& ' ' ' '&&&&&& TEACH 3 r0:7:7::8,3;" S T O P T H E T A P E "'''" PRESS ANY KEY TO GO ON" ".1}L,40(:=""6 X:SA=9997 ':SB=9996 ':SX=9100#:SQ=8990#:G$="(Take g = 9.8 m/s)" '''" C O N T E N T S"''''" WORK ................. 1"''" ENERGY ............... 2"''" POWER ............... 3"''" MACHINES ............. 4"''" PRESSURE ............. 5"''" FLOTATION ............ 6" G''" TO ACCESS A HEADING ENTER THE CORRESPONDING NUMBER.":200 (*I$:I$<491ůI$>54640( 2:1000*I$(1)+200*(I$(1)=3) C t:M=113 :D$:N=18:D$(1)+N-1,d$(3*n-13*n+1):N:M "000002036088088038000000" "126255255255126036024024" "096016032016096000000000" "048072072048000000000000" "012012012006014022035067" "007004008008016016160096" "048048048096112104196194" "016016016124048008016056" ""073034168037166060074169" ,"130084056127056084146017" |"000000012018034044064064" "032080016032112000000000" "000000000018018030016016"  j:12 ;" WORK "''"IN PHYSICS WORK IS THE PRODUCT OF FORCE TIMES DISPLACEMENT." '"WHEN THE FORCE DOES NOT HAVE THESAME DIRECTION AS THAT OF THE DISPLACEMENT, THEN ONLY THAT PORTION THAT RESOLVES ALONG THE DISPLACEMENT IS CONSIDERED." '"WORK IS MEASURED IN JOULES (J). A JOULE IS THE WORK DONE BY A FORCE OF ONE NEWTON WHEN IT IS DISPLACED ALONG ONE METRE." '"DO NOT CONFUSE THE UNIT OF THE MOMENT OF A FORCE ABOUT A POINT WITH THE UNIT OF WORK. BOTH CAN BE MEASURED IN Nm. USE JOULES FOR ALL WORK CALCULATIONS." SA:"HERE ARE A FEW WORKED EXAMPLES DEALING WITH VARIOUS KINDS OF CALCULATIONS OF WORK DONE."''"YOU SHOULD TRY TO WORK OUT THE PROBLEMS ON YOUR OWN AND COMPAREYOUR REPLY WITH THAT GIVEN HERE." u0,116t:255,0:''"WHAT WORK IS DONE IN RAISING A 50 kg LOAD THROUGH A HEIGHT OF 10 m?"''G$ $\sb:'"THE DISPLACEMENT IS 10 m AND THEFORCE IS 50*9.8 N SO THE WORK IS10*50*9.8 = 4.9 kJ." .sa:"TWO MEN TOW A BARGE FROM THE BRIDAL PATH EACH SIDE OF A CANALWITH A FORCE OF 400 N EACH AS SHOWN IN THE FIGURE. IF = 20,WHAT WORK IS DONE IN TOWING THE BARGE FOR 100 m?" 80,108l:110n,0:0,92\:110n,0:8,100d:4,4:16,0:4,-4:-4,-4:-16,0:-4,4 BS92\,112p:-64@,-12 :64@,-12 :9 ,8;"" LqSB:13 ,0;"THE FORCE RESOLVED ALONG THE DIRECTION OF THE CANAL IS:"''" F = 2*400*10 = 788 N" V>'"THE WORK DONE IS THEREFORE:"''" W = 788 * 100 = 78.8 kJ" t}sa:"WHAT WORK IS DONE WHEN A CAR IS ACCELERATED FROM REST TO A SPEEDOF 32 m/s OVER 30 m WHEN THE CARHAS A MASS OF 750 kg?" ~uSB:''"THE THIRD EQUATION OF MOTION, ASIN MANY PROBLEMS OF THIS KIND, IS VERY USEFUL HERE:"'" v = u + 2as" |'"AS THE CAR STARTS FROM REST THE INITIAL VELOCITY, u, IS ZERO, SOPUTTING IN THE VALUES:"'"1024 = 2*30*a; a = 17.1 m/s" P'"THIS ACCELERATION IS PRODUCED BYA FORCE OF:"'"F = m*a = 750*17.1 = 12.8 kN." ?'"THE WORK DONE, THEREFORE, IS:"'" W = 12800*30 = 384 kJ." SA:"HOW MUCH WORK IS DONE ON A LEAD BULLET HAVING A MASS OF 10 g ANDA VELOCITY OF 400 m/s AS IT IS BROUGHT TO REST IN A SAND BANK AT A DEPTH OF 20 cm?" }sb:'"ONCE AGAIN THE EQUATION TO USE IS:"'" v = u + 2as"''"HERE v=0, u=400 m/s, s=0.2 m. GIVING a = -400 km/s." ='"THE RETARDING FORCE IS:"'"F = m*a = -0.01*400000 = -4 kN" W'"THE WORK DONE BY THE SAND IN STOPPING THE BULLET IS:"'" W = 4000*0.2 = 800 J" ;'"THE WORK IS POSITIVE BECAUSE IT IS DONE ON THE BULLET." SB: "SA:"  ENERGY " ?''"ENERGY IS THE CAPACITY TO DO A QUANTITY OF WORK." 3'"ENERGY, LIKE WORK, IS MEASURED IN JOULES (J)." '"ENERGY CANNOT BE CREATED NOR CANIT BE DESTROYED."''"ENERGY CAN, HOWEVER, BE CHANGED FROM ONE FORM INTO ANOTHER BUT AT A PRICE- SOME OF THE ORIGINALFORM OF THE ENERGY MUST BE GIVENUP AS HEAT." Y'"ALL THE FORMS OF ENERGY CAN BE COMPLETELY TRANSFORMED TO HEAT WITH NO LOSS AT ALL." *SA:"  SOURCES OF ENERGY "  ='"THERE ARE ONLY FOUR SOURCES OF ENERGY KNOWN AT PRESENT:" '"SOLAR AND STELLAR ENERGY FROM THE UNIVERSE AROUND US. THIS IS THE COMMONEST SOURCE OF ENERGY AND GOVERNS OUR DAILY LIVES."  P'"GRAVITATIONAL ENERGY. BEST KNOWNFOR CONTROLLING THE TIDES OF THEOCEANS." *{'"GEOTHERMAL ENERGY. CURRENTLY IN THE PROCESS OF BEING TAMED BUT KNOWN SINCE PREHISTORIC TIMES INITS VOLCANIC FORM." 4A'"ATOMIC ENERGY. ENERGY FROM THE NATURE OF MATTER ITSELF." >_SA:'"ALL OTHER FORMS OF ENERGY ARE LOCAL TRANSFORMATION OF ONE OF THESE PRIMARY SOURCES." H@'"IT IS POSSIBLE TO TRACE A SERIESOF ENERGY CHANGES BACK TO THE PRIMARY SOURCE. FOR INSTANCE:"''"THE WARMTH OF A GAS FIRE COMES FROM THE CHEMICAL ENERGY OF THE GAS THAT WAS PRODUCED BY MARINE ANIMAL DECOMPOSITION. THEY IN TURN LIVED ON VEGETABLE MATTER WHICH OBTAINED ITS ENERGY FROM THE SUN BY PHOTOSYNTHESIS." R['"POTENTIAL, KINETIC, HEAT AND ELECTRICAL ENERGY ARE OF SPECIALIMPORTANCE IN PHYSICS." \uSA:'"POTENTIAL ENERGY IS THE CAPACITYOF A BODY TO DO WORK BECAUSE OF ITS POSITION, CONDITION OR ITS COMPOSITION." f]'"RAINWATER HELD IN A MOUNTAIN RESERVOIR HAS POTENTIAL ENERGY BECAUSE OF ITS POSITION." pO'"THE POTENTIAL ENERGY HELD IN A COMPRESSED SPRING IS DUE TO ITS CONDITION." z<'"DYNAMITE HAS POTENTIAL ENERGY DUE TO ITS COMPOSITION." N'"THE QUANTITY OF ENERGY IS WORKEDOUT BY CONSIDERING THE WORK IT COULD DO." bSA:"A MASS OF 3 t IS RAISED THROUGH 30 m. WHAT CHANGE IN POTENTIAL ENERGY DOES IT EXPERIENCE?" aSB:'"THE WORK AVAILABLE FROM THE MASSAT ITS NEW HEIGHT IS:"''"W = mgh = 3000*9.8*30 = 882 kJ." sSB:''"WHAT IS THE MINIMUM ENERGY THAT WILL PUMP 10000 mOF WATER (= 1000 kg/m) UP TO A HEIGHT OF 2000 m?" DSB:'"THE WEIGHT OF WATER TO BE PUMPEDIS: 10000*1000*9.8 = 98 MN." @SB:'"THE ENERGY NEEDED IS:"''"W = 98000000*2000 = 196000 MJ." Csa:"KINETIC ENERGY IS THAT HELD IN ABODY BECAUSE OF ITS MOTION." ʋ'"A MASS m ACCELERATED FROM REST WITH AN ACCELERATION a OVER A DISPLACEMENT s WILL HAVE A FINALVELOCITY v GIVEN BY:"''" v = 2as" n'"MULTIPLYING BOTH SIDES OF THAT EQUATIONS BY THE MASS m AND THENDIVIDING BY 2 GIVES:"''" mv = mas = W" ;'"THE KINETIC ENERGY OF A BODY IS EXPRESSED AS mv." C'"A FEW EXAMPLES FOLLOW TO MAKE THIS EXPRESSION MORE FAMILIAR." RSA:"WHAT ENERGY IS REQUIRED TO SPEEDUP A 700 kg VEHICLE FROM 10 m/s TO 35 m/s?" ]SB:'"THE KINETIC ENERGY CHANGE IS:"''"W = (v-u)m = (1225-100)*700"'" W = 394 kJ" sA:"A 10 g BULLET WITH A VELOCITY OF400 m/s PENETRATES TO A DEPTH OF20 cm INTO A SAND BANK IN COMINGTO REST. WHAT IS THE WORK DONE IN STOPPING THE BULLET?" F'"THE KINETIC ENERGY OF THE BULLETIS:"''" W = *0.01*400 = 800 J" ;'"SINCE THIS IS REDUCED TO ZERO, THAT IS THE WORK DONE." $n''"Notice here how much neater and simpler this answer is compared to that given under the heading of WORK." .sa:"A BALL OF MASS m FALLS FROM A HEIGHT h TO THE GROUND. AT WHAT POINT IS ITS POTENTIAL ENERGY EQUAL TO ITS KINETIC ENERGY?" 8cSB:'"THE POTENTIAL ENERGY AFTER A FALL THROUGH A DISPLACEMENT s IS:"'" W = mg(h-s)" B'"WHILE IT FALLS THROUGH s IT HAS INCREASED ITS VELOCITY TO:"'" v = 2gs"''"THE KINETIC ENERGY GAINED IS:"'" W = mv = mgs" Lf'"THE POTENTIAL ENERGY EQUALS THE KINETIC ENERGY WHEN:"''" mgs = mg(h-s),"''"i.e. s = h." VSA:'''''"ENERGY IN THE FORM OF HEAT AND ELECTRICAL ENERGY WILL BE DEALT WITH FULLY UNDER THOSE HEADINGS IN OTHER PROGRAMS." `^''"AN ADVENTURE GAME FOLLOWS WHICH ILLUSTRATES THE VALUE OF GRAPHEDDATA WHEN TIME IS SHORT." 'sa:"  MORTAR ATTACK! " η''"YOU COMMAND A MORTAR ATTACK ON AHIDDEN ENEMY POSITION. TO 'GET' THE ENEMY FIRST YOU MUST WORK OUT THE FIRING ANGLE OF YOUR GUNFROM THE RANGE, SHELL MASS AND EXPLOSIVE CHARGE." Y'"THE ENEMY SPOTS YOUR POSITION FROM A RANGING BALLOON CARRYING A SUPPLY OF BOMBS..." '"YOU TAKE EVASIVE ACTION WITH THEKEYS 5 AND 8."''"TO INPUT THE FIRING ANGLE YOU MUST FIRST PRESS 'A' SO AS TO ACCESS THE ANGLE REGISTER."''"PRESS'F' TO FIRE YOUR SHOT." SA:"ON FIRING, DISCOUNTING RECOIL, THE SHELL'S KINETIC ENERGY IS:"''" E = mv"''"WHERE E IS THE ENERGY IN THE FIRING CHARGE, m IS THE MASS OF THE SHELL AND v IS ITS MUZZLE VELOCITY." <'"THIS EQUATION CAN BE WRITTEN AS:"''" v = (2*E/m)" '"THE MUZZLE VELOCITY RESOLVES INTO HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL COMPONENTS FOR THE FIRING ANGLE:"''" v(h) = v = (2*E/m)"'" v(v) = v = (2*E/m)" ZSA:"THE RISE TIME, t, IS GIVEN BY:"''" v(v) = g*t,"'"i.e. t = [ (2*E/m)]/g" T'"THE RANGE IS TWICE THE RISE TIMEMULTIPLIED BY v(h):"''" RANGE = 2t* (2*E/m)" o'"THIS FINALLY GIVES THE GUNNER'S EQUATION:"''"RANGE = 0.4073*(E/m)**"'''"There is simply nothing to it!" #SA:"MAKE A CLEAR GRAPH OF FOR THE VALUES OF FROM 80 TO 45 SO YOU CAN READ OFF VALUES OF THE FIRING ANGLE, , FOR THE VALUES OF E, m, AND RANGE THAT ARISE IN THE BATTLEFIELD." &''"CALCULATE THE VALUE OF:"''" 2.455*RANGE*m/E,"''"WHICH IS EQUAL TO *. THEN USE YOUR GRAPH TO FIND , THE ALL IMPORTANT FIRING ANGLE." ''"REMEMBER:"'" PRESS A THEN ENTER THEFIRING ANGLE (TWO FIGURES)."'" PRESS F TO FIRE YOUR SHELL.":SA ( :0:N=08:1:0,15-N:66B,0:23,9 :20,18:30,29:14,6:5,2:5,-1:10 ,-14:27,-491:20,0:34",12 :N 2W19,1;"";19,26;"";18,30;1;"":0 7d=7-p >stAA="f"Ŧ="F"st=1:N=0:P=P+D:D=0 hn=2*(n/2)ht2121-ht,30;"";22-ht,30;" ":ht=ht+1 {n=2*(n/2)ht>210,502-ht;" ":ht=ht+in:ht>44,+inHT=502ht=44,in=-in :19,p+d;" ";20,17;212-P-D;"m" Hst12 +8*P+Z*(N+1)>240st=0:3030 ist24+.028{e`A*S*(N+1)*(150-4*(N+1))>174st=0:3030 5="A"Ŧ="a"A=1:16,16;"= " WAa$=:a$>47/Ưa$<58:A$""16,18;A$:B=1:A=0 B=1=""B=2 "B=2B$=:B$>47/Ưa$<58:B$""AA=10 *(A$-480)+B$-480:16,18;AA:S=.028{e`A*CH/MS*((AA*.0175{\())^2:Z=4*CH/MS*(AA*.0175{\()*(AA*.0175{\():B=0 ,;HT>44,PLƥ>.1}LPL=513-HT+IN:H=0 6 PLH=H+3:PL*8+4,168-H^2:1;PL*8+4,168-F^2:F=H:168-(H+1)^2<163070 :PL=0:F=0:BL3110& @]st24+S*(N+1)*(150-4*(N+1))<24st=0:3030 Tht>13 j=j+2:212-E*J,24+.08}# =*J*(150-4*J):1;212-E*K,24+.08}# =*K*(150-4*K):K=J: ^Wj=38&j=0:3010 :e=4.3 +.2~L*(*6):bl3110& 2710 [oy=19:ox=((212-e*38&)/8):ox=p+d+1bl=0:st=0 3090 ֩oy=21-((24+s*(n+2)*(150-4*(n+2)))/8):ox=((12 +8*p+Z*(n+2))/8):ox=26bl=0:oy=19 ox>31ox=31 ^1;12 +8*p+n*Z,24+s*n*(150-4*n):OY>19OY=19 3090 0OY=19:OX=PL:OX=P+D+1BL=0 <1;PL*8+4,168-F^2:F=0 vbl:1:oy,ox;"";:5:8;"";:5:8;"";:5:8;""; +5:8;" ":0:0: &M100d::10 ,3;" YOU HAVE BEEN WIPED OUT! ":3130: 04100d::10 ,8;" DIRECT HIT! " :^" PRESS 'ENTER' TO GO ON."'" ENTER 'R' TO PLAY AGAIN. ";I$:I$="R"I$="r"2600( D !:'"  POWER " '''"POWER IS THE RATE OF WORKING." d'"SINCE ENERGY IS CONSUMED WHEN WORK IS DONE, POWER IS ALSO THE RATE OF ENERGY CONSUMPTION." ''"POWER IS MEASURED IN WATTS (W). ONE WATT IS THE POWER DEVELOPED WHEN ONE JOULE OF WORK IS DONE IN ONE SECOND." '"POWER MEASUREMENTS VARY WIDELY RANGING FROM W, IN BIOLOGICAL STUDIES FOR EXAMPLE, TO THE MANYTHOUSANDS OF MW GENERATED IN POWER STATIONS." SA:"THE FOLLOWING WORKED EXAMPLES WILL HELP TO SHOW HOW PROBLEMS INVOLVING POWER RELATE TO OTHER CONCEPTS IN PHYSICS. A FURTHER REVISION OF HOW POWER IS RELATEDTO HEAT AND ELECTRICITY IS GIVENIN THE PROGRAMS ON THOSE TOPICS." z'"YOUR ARE WELL ADVISED TO ATTEMPTTHESE QUESTIONS ON YOUR OWN AND COMPARE YOUR ANSWER WITH THAT GIVEN IN DETAIL HERE." %0,72H:255,0 t'''"WHAT POWER IS NEEDED TO INCREASETHE VELOCITY OF A 40 kg MASS FROM 12 TO 31 m/s OVER A 23 m DISPLACEMENT?" sb:n=017::n 5,0;"THE WORK DONE IN INCREASING THE VELOCITY IS THE DIFFERENCE IN KINETIC ENERGY PRODUCED:"''"W = m(v- u) = 20*(961 - 144)"''" W = 16340 J" p'"THE VELOCITY INCREASE TAKES t SECONDS PRODUCING A DISPLACEMENTOF 23 m:"''"23 = t*(v + u)/2, i.e. t=1.07 s" F'"THE POWER, WORK PER SECOND, IS:"''"P = W/t = 16340/1.07 = 15.3 kW" SA:"WHAT IS THE MINIMUM PUMP POWER THAT CAN LIFT 300 m/h OF WATER,HAVING A DENSITY OF 1000 kg/m, TO A HEIGHT OF 120 m?",g$ GSB:''"THE LIFING WORK DONE IS:"''"W = hg = 120*1000*9.8 = 1176 kJ" y'"THE TIME IT TAKES TO DO THE WORKIS 3600 s. THE POWER REQUIREMENTCANNOT BE LESS THAN:"''" P = 1176000/3600 = 327 W" l'"IN PRACTICE ABOUT TWICE THIS POWER WILL BE NEEDED TO OVERCOMEFRICTION AND WATER DRAG IN THE PIPING." *SA:"CALCULATE THE POWER DEVELOPED BYA ROCKET ENGINE WHICH CONSUMES FUEL AT THE RATE OF 300 kg/s ANDHAS A TOTAL MASS OF 4700 kg WHENTHE THRUST PRODUCED IS JUST ABLETO LIFT THE ROCKET VERTICALLY." 4g$'' >sb:"THE THRUST IS 4700*9.8=46.1 kN."''"IT IS PRODUCED BY THE RATE OF CHANGE OF MOMENTUM AS FUEL IS CONSUMED IN THE ROCKET'S MOTORS:"''" F = *Rf*v" H'"WHERE Rf IS THE RATE OF FUEL CONSUMED AND v IS ITS VELOCITY OF EJECTION. THIS GIVES v AS:"''" v = 2*46100/300 = 307 m/s" Rc'"THE RATE OF WORKING, THAT IS THEPOWER, IS THE RATE OF PRODUCTIONOF KINETIC ENERGY BY THE FUEL:" \A'" P = (mv)/t = *Rf*v"''" = 0.5*300*307 = 14.1 MW":SA f_:"HERE IS A SORT OF 'GAME' AIMED AT EXERCISING ACCURACY WITH SOMEOF THE EQUATIONS STUDIED." pL''"A METEOROID IS ON A COLLISION COURSE WITH THE ARTIFICIAL MOON SARNA." z}'"TO SAVE SARNA YOU HAVE TO WORK OUT THE EXACT MOMENT TO FIRE A DESTRUCT ROCKET ON A 45 COURSE TO THE METEOROID'S PATH." d'"AT LEAST SIX FIGURE ACCURACY MUST BE RETAINED IN YOUR WORK ORYOUR ROCKET MAY FAIL TO STRIKE." SA:10 ;"D A T A"''"METEOROID VELOCITY: V=93.15 km/s"'"METEOROID DISTANCE: H=97269 km"'"ROCKET THRUST: F=1.537 MN" ''"THE CALCULATIONS NEEDED ARE:"''"1. HOW LONG THE METEOROID TAKES TO COVER THE DISTANCE H FROM THE EQUATION: T = H/V"'"2. HOW LONG THE ROCKET TAKES TO REACH THE POINT OF IMPACT FROM: t = ((H*m*8)/F)" z"3. THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THESE TWO TIMES. THIS IS ENTERED AS THE FIRING TIME."''"T=1044.22s;t=946.04s;T-t=98.18s" sa:5,0;"WHEN YOU ARE SURE YOU KNOW HOW TO DO THE CALCULATIONS REQUIRED THEN PRESS 'ENTER'."'''"TO REVIEW THE EXPLANATIONS GIVENEARLIER ENTER 'R'.":I$:I$="R"I$="r"3430 f  :vm=30+.01z# =*(*5000):hm=950009+(*15000:):fr=14.142136bF0g*hm/(((hm/vm)-100d-.01z# =*(*10000'))^2):fr=.0001sQX*(fr*10000'):dt=hm/vm-(14.142136bF0g*hm/fr):dt=.01z# =*(100d*(dt+.005y# =)) $ '"  D A T A " .m''"METEOROID VELOCITY: V=";VM;" km/s"''"METEOROID DISTANCE: H=";HM;" km"''"ROCKET THRUST : F=";FR;" MN" 818,0;"ENTER THE FIRING TIME CORRECT TOTWO DECIMAL PLACES.":A$:N=1̱A$:A$(N)<46.ůA$(N)>57936408 :N <A$=""36408 BAS=A$:23610:\:AS=.01z# =*((AS+0.005y# =)*100d):RX=(79O*AS/DT+2*(AS-DT)):RX=RX+(RX=2*(RX/2))*(AS-DT):CS=(AS=DT) L1:0:3800:k=0:m=K:j=K:r=K Vpn=32522:1:m+4,164:1,-1:1,1:-1,1 `N=159CS3850  jS0:N+4,164:1,-1:1,1:-1,1 tm=n ~n=rxr=1: N1613 N=2293850  xrJ=J+1:1:3+.1}L*k*k,.1}L*k*k+2:-1,1:1,0:3,3 J=42*R=0 br3+.1}L*j*j,.1}L*j*j+2:-1,1:1,0:3,3 k=j n -N=12:237,164,N:N E3,2:-1,1:1,0:3,3 6n=07:3+n,n:7-n,0:n H4,164:1,-1:1,1:-1,1   31,20+9 *(CS);"";:5  8;"";:5 8;"";:5 (%8;1;" ";:5 2. 8;0;" ";7,14;" " ";14,15;"TAP";11 ,10 ;"FLUID":136,88X:0,-17:-19,0:0,-20:34",0:0,38& 76L,69E:0,-14:2,2:-2,-2:-2,2:107k,35#:-16,0:20,0;"'X' REPRESENTS ONE-WAY VALVES. THE TAP RELEASES THE PRESSURE.";  SA:"A HYDRAULIC SYSTEM OF THIS KIND HAS A VELOCITY RATIO EQUAL TO THE CROSS-SECTION AREA OF THE SLAVE CYLINDER DIVIDED BY THE CROSS-SECTION AREA OF THE MASTERCYLINDER." '"HYDRAULIC SYSTEMS HAVE A HIGH EFFICIENCY. ANY AIR DRAWN INTO THE HYDRAULIC CIRCUIT, HOWEVER, WILL OBLIGE EXCESSIVE PUMPING OFTHE MASTER CYLINDER TO GENERATE SUFFICIENT PRESSURE." (*SA:"  PRESSURE AT A DEPTH " 2<''"THE MEASUREMENT OF PRESSURE IS EXPRESSED IN TWO WAYS:" 53530 (I$=""30 2I$>130 <1000*I$ ?:M=110 :D$:N=07:D:D$+N,D:N:M I"",0,2,36$,88X,88X,38&,0,0 R"",126~,255,255,255,126~,36$,24,24 J"",96`,16,32 ,16,96`,0,0,0 I"",480,72H,72H,480,0,0,0,0 M"",16,16,16,124|,480,8,16,568 JQ"",66B,165,26,120x,184,10 ,65A,144 TO"",137,202,0,195,2,36$,66B,137 ^P"",73I,34",168,37%,166,60<,74J,169 |K"",0,0,12 ,18,34",44,,64@,64@ K"",32 ,80P,16,32 ,112p,0,0,0  !:'"  HEAT " `'''"HEAT IS DEFINED AS THE ENERGY THAT IS TRANSFERRED BECAUSE OF A TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCE." c'"IN CONTRAST WITH HEAT, WORK IS THE TRANSFER OF ENERGY WHEN NO TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCE EXISTS." c'"THE TEMPERATURE OF A BODY IS A MEASURE OF THE AVERAGE KINETIC ENERGY OF ITS ATOMIC PATICLES." J'"SINCE HEAT IS A FORM OF ENERGY IT IS MEASURED IN JOULES (J)." SA:"THERE ARE TWO TEMPERATURE UNITS:THE KELVIN (K) AND THE DEGREE CELSIUS (C). IN ALL WORK THAT INVOLVES TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCESTHE TEMPERATURE SHOULD BE STATEDIN KELVINS (K)" $C'"TEMPERATURE IN C IS USED FOR NEARLY ALL PRACTICAL PURPOSES." .F'"THE TWO TEMPERATURE SCALES ARE RELATED BY:"''" K = 273 + C" 8-'"THIS RELATION MUST BE KNOWN FOR CERTAIN." L%SA:"  THERMOMETRY " V'"TEMPERATURE IS MEASURED WITH REFERENCE TO FIXED POINTS WHICH ARE CHOSEN BECAUSE THEY HAVE A PRACTICAL VALUE AND ARE EASILY AND ACCURATELY REPRODUCED:" ``'"0C IS THE TEMPERATURE OF PURE ICE IN CONTACT WITH PURE WATER AT A PRESSURE OF 101325 Pa." jR'"100C IS THE TEMPERATURE OF PUREBOILING WATER UNDER A PRESSURE OF 101325 Pa." t'"OTHER FIXED POINTS ARE DEFINED FOR PARTICULAR USES SUCH AS THE BOILING POINT OF LIQUID OXYGEN (-183C) FOR LOW TEMPERATURES, OR THE FREEZING POINT OF GOLD (1063C) FOR HIGH TEMPERATURES." ~SA:;"THERMOMETERS ARE CONSTRUCTED ON THE BASIS OF SOME PROPERTY, SUCHAS EXPANSION, ELECTRIC POTENTIALOR RESISTIVITY, WHICH CHANGES UNIFORMLY AND RELIABLY WITH TEMPERATURE CHANGES." '"MERCURY AND GLASS HAVE A UNIFORMAND DIFFERENT EXPANSIVITY OVER AWIDE RANGE OF TEMPERATURES AND MERCURY IN GLASS THERMOMETERS ARE FREQUENTLY USED." '"THE THERMOMETER CALIBRATIONS AREMADE ON THE FUNDAMENTAL INTERVALOF 0 TO 100C WHICH IS DIVIDED INTO EXACTLY 100 EQUAL PARTS FORTHE DEGREES." SA:"MERCURY REMAINS LIQUID FROM -38C TO 357C. LOW TEMPERATURE THERMOMETERS USE LIQUIDS SUCH ASALCOHOL, USEFUL DOWN TO -115C, OR PENTANE, DOWN TO -200C." ;'"TWO METHODS ARE COMMONLY USED FOR HIGH TEMPERATURES:" '"THERMOCOUPLES. THESE ARE BASED ON THE CURRENT PRODUCED WHEN TWOWIRES MADE OF DIFFERENT METALS ARE JOINED AT BOTH ENDS BUT ONE JOINT IS KEPT COOL WHILE THE OTHER IS AT A HIGH TEMPERATURE." '"OPTICAL PYROMETERS. THE WHITE HOT TEMPERATURE OF A FILAMENT INA BULB IS ADJUSTED BY REGULATINGTHE CURRENT FLOWING THROUGH IT UNTIL IT DISAPPEARS AGAINST THE WHITE HEAT OF THE FURNACE." -SA:"  THE CLINICAL THERMOMETER " ''"LIKE MOST MERCURY THERMOMETERS THE CLINICAL VERSION HAS A BULB,A CALIBRATED STEM WITH A BORE TOTAKE A MERCURY THREAD. IT IS DIFFERENT IN THAT THE BORE IS KINKED JUST ABOVE THE BULB." MN=35#43+2:12 ,12 +1.5@*(N-35#);N:N c32 ,72H:200,0:0,16,:-200,0:0,-16, 32 ,76L:24,0:8,3:10 ,0:6,4,/4:6,-4,-/5:136,0:1,1:-1,1:-134,0 q-8,4:-6,-4:-10 ,0:-8,3:-24,0:0,-8, UN=-33:29,80P+N:34"-N+6*(N=0),0:N  781Q,84T:6,-4:42*,0 ^N=120:91[+6*N,82R:0,1+(N=2*(N/2)):N ''"NOTE THE FOLLOWING POINTS:"''"1. LARGE BULB FOR SENSITIVITY. 2. THICK GLASS FOR STRENGTH. 3. SMALL TEMPERATURE RANGE. 4. SMOOTH SHAPE FOR SAFETY." (SA:"THE KINK IN THE BORE PREVENTS THE MERCURY BEING DRAWN BACK INTO THE BULB WHILE READING THE TEMPERATURE. IT DOES THIS BY BREAKING THE MERCURY THREAD." 2{'"THE MERCURY THREAD MUST BE SENT DOWN INTO THE BULB WITH A DEFT FLICK AND CHECKED BEFORE USING THE THERMOMETER AGAIN." <''"THE SENSITIVITY OF MERCURY IN GLASS THERMOMETERS IS SET BY THEVOLUME OF MERCURY IN THE BULB AND THE DIAMETER OF THE BORE IN THE STEM." Ft'"A LARGE BULB, APART FROM BEING FRAGILE, DRAWS CONSIDERABLE HEATIN ORDER TO RESPOND TO CHANGES IN TEMPERATURE." PSA:"THE MEASUREMENT OF TEMPERATURE IN KELVINS IS OF FUNDAMENTAL IMPORTANCE IN THE CALCULATION OFVOLUMES AND PRESSURES IN GASES." Zw'"FINALLY IT IS WORTH NOTING THAT IN EQUATIONS IT IS CUSTOMARY TO WRITE t FOR TEMPERATURES WHEN ITIS MEASURED IN C." dE'"WHEN THE TEMPERATURE IS MEASUREDIN KELVINS THE SYMBOL T IS USED." n'"THE KELVIN SCALE STARTS FROM ABSOLUTE ZERO AND HAS A VALUE OF273 K FOR THE MELTING POINT OF ICE AND 373 K FOR THE BOILING POINT OF WATER." xS"ENTER 'I' TO RETURN TO THE INDEXPRESS 'ENTER' TO GO ON." ;I$:I$="I"I$="i" %:"  HEAT TRANSFER " z'"HEAT IS TRANSFERRED THROUGH ALL SUBSTANCES BY CONDUCTION FLOWINGFROM A REGION OF HIGHER TO THAT OF LOWER TEMPERATURE." '"SUBSTANCES ARE BROADLY DIVIDED INTO GOOD AND BAD CONDUCTORS OF HEAT. GOOD CONDUCTORS OF HEAT ARE ALWAYS GOOD CONDUCTORS OF ELECTRICITY." '"IN BAD CONDUCTORS HEAT IS TRANS-FERRED BY THE JOSTLING OF ATOMS WITH GREATER KINETIC ENERGY OF THOSE COLDER ATOMS HAVING LESS KINETIC ENERGY." L'"HEAT TRANSFERRED IN THIS MANNER MOVES ALONG THE SUBSTANCE VERY SLOWLY." SA:"GOOD CONDUCTORS TRANSFER SOME HEAT BY ATOMIC VIBRATION BUT MUCH MORE IS CONDUCTED BY FREE ELECTRON DRIFT AWAY FROM THE HOTTER PART OF THE SUBSTANCE."  D'"METALS AND ALLOYS CONDUCT HEAT VERY WELL AND SO DOES GRAPHITE." '"VERY BAD CONDUCTORS OF HEAT ARE CALLED INSULATORS. ALL GASES AREINSULATORS AND MOST STRUCTURES INCORPORATING A LOT IF AIR WOULDHAVE A HIGH INSULATION VALUE."  '"FIBREGLASS QUILTING AND EXPANDEDMINERALS, SUCH AS VERMICULITE, ARE WIDELY USED AS INSULATORS. THESE MATERIALS WILL LOOSE MOST OF THEIR INSULATING VALUE IF THEAIR IN THEM IS DISPLACED IN SOMEWAY SUCH AS WATERLOGGING." *SA:"ANOTHER APPLICATION OF AIR AS INSULATOR IS IN DOUBLE GLAZING OF WINDOWS IN HOUSES. THIS HAS THE ADDED ADVANTAGE OF REDUCING THE TRANSMISSION OF NOISE." 4%SA:"  CONVECTION " >'"LIQUIDS AND GASES USUALLY EXPANDWHEN HEATED AND THE LOWERING OF THEIR DENSITY CAUSES THEM TO RISE AS THEY ARE DISPLACED BY COLDER AND MORE DENSE PORTIONS. THIS IS THE CONVECTION PROCESS." H'"THOUGH CONVECTION IS HARDLY A METHOD OF TRANSMITTING HEAT IT IS A VERY MAJOR FACTOR IN THE MOVEMENT OF THE ATMOSPHERE AND THE WIND PATTERNS OF THE WORLD." R'"BALLOONISTS AND GLIDER PILOTS COME IN DIRECT CONTACT WITH THE GREAT SURGES OF 'THERMALS' OR RISING AIR CURRENTS AND A STUDY OF CLOUD STRUCTURE REVEALS VAST COLUMNS OF WARM AIR RISING HIGH INTO THE SKY." \SA:"OCEAN CURRENTS SUCH AS THE GULF STREAM AND THE HUMBOLT STREAM ARE LARGELY DEPENDANT ON THE CONVECTION PROCESS FOR THE VAST DISTANCES THEY MOVE." f'"ON A SMALLER SCALE CONVECTION ISRESPONSIBLE FOR THE DISPERSAL OFINDUSTRIAL AND DOMESTIC SMOKE AND THE SAME PROCESS, BY HOLDINGA LAYER OF COLD AIR OVER A CITY,CAN TRAP SMOKE AND FOG FOR MANY HOURS AT GROUND LEVEL CREATING ADANGEROUS ATMOSPHERE OF SMOG." p'"CONVECTION WORKS EVEN DOWN TO THE DOMESTIC SCALE IN ENSURING THE CIRCULATION OF WARM AIR IN AROOM OR OF HOT WATER IN CENTRAL HEATING SYSTEMS." z%SA:"  RADIATION " '"ELECTROMAGNETIC ENERGY REACHES EARTH IN THE FORM OF SUNLIGHT. HEAT IS PRODUCED IN A BODY WHEN THAT ENERGY IS ABSORBED BY IT. WHEN THE ENERGY IS REFLECTED NO HEAT IS OBTAINED." '"THE BEST REFLECTORS OF RADIANT ENERGY ARE POLISHED METAL SHEETSBUT WHITE SURFACES ARE GENERALLYVERY GOOR REFLECTORS AND SO IN WARM CLIMATES WHITE CLOTHING ANDWHITE PAINTED BUILDINGS CLAD WITH ALUMINIUM PAINTED ROOFING ARE GENERALLY THE RULE." +SA:"  THE GLASSHOUSE EFFECT " '"A GLASSHOUSE ACTS EFFECTIVELY ASA RADIATION TRAP BECAUSE GLASS IS QUITE TRANSPARENT TO LIGHT AND SHORTER WAVELENGTH INFRARED RAYS. THESE CAN ENTER AND WARM EARTH AND OBJECTS INSIDE." '"THE AIR, IN TURN, IS WARMED BY THE EARTH AND OTHER OBJECTS IN THE GLASSHOUSE AND BECAUSE IT ISENCLOSED, IT CANNOT ESCAPE." '"WARM OBJECTS IN THE GLASSHOUSE ALSO RADIATE ENERGY BUT AT A MUCH LONGER WAVELENGTHS AND AS GLASS IS NOT TRANSPARENT TO THEMTHEY DO NOT ESCAPE." $'SA:"  SOLAR HEATING " .q'"BLACK SURFACES ABSORB RADIATION EFFICIENTLY. THEY CAN ALSO EMIT RADIATION DUE TO THE TEMPERATURETHEY ARE AT." 8'"BLACK SOLAR PANELS ARE EFFECTIVEIN COLLECTING RADIANT ENERGY EVEN DURING OVERCAST DAYS. THE ENERGY IS TRANSFERRED AS HEAT TOWATER CIRCULATING THROUGH PIPESIN THE SOLAR PANEL AND THE WATERCAN BE USED FOR DOMESTIC HEATINGPURPOSES." B{'"ALTERNATIVELY, BY USING SOLAR CELLS, SUNLIGHT CAN BE CHANGED DIRECTLY INTO ELECTRICAL ENERGY AND USED IN THAT FORM." L["ENTER 'I' TO RETURN TO THE INDEXPRESS 'ENTER' TO GO ON. ";I$:I$="R"I$="r"10 ":"  EXPANSION " «'"WHEN SUBSTANCES ARE HEATED THEY GENERALLY EXPAND. THERE ARE TWO MAIN SITUATIONS WHERE THIS IS NOT SO: AT A CHANGE OF STATE ANDWHEN ANOMALOUS EXPANSION TAKES PLACE." '"DIFFERENT SOLIDS EXPAND AT RATESCHARACTERISTIC OF THEMSELVES ANDDIFFERNT FROM EACH OTHER. THEIR RATE OF EXPANSION IS CONSTANT ONLY AT A PARTICULAR TEMPERATUREAND CHANGES GRADUALLY OVER A WIDE RANGE OF TEMPERATURE." ֣'"SOLIDS EXPAND ONLY VERY LITTLE ON HEATING BUT THEY DO SO WITH GREAT FORCE. THE SAME FORCE IS DEVELOPED IN THE OPPOSITE SENSE WHEN THEY CONTRACT ON COOLING." SA:"IN ORDER TO COMPARE THE RATE OF EXPANSION OF DIFFERENT SOLIDS A MEASURE CALLED THE EXPANSIVITY OFTHE SOLID HAS BEEN DEVISED." '"THE EXPANSIVITY OF A SOLID IS ITS CHANGE IN LENGTH, RELATIVE TO ITS ORIGINAL LENGTH AT 0C, FOR A CHANGE IN TEMPERATURE OF ONE KELVIN." q'" = (lt - lo)/(lo*t)"''"WHERE IS THE EXPANSIVITY, lo THE LENGTH AT 0C AND lt THE LENGTH AT t C." m'"EXPANSIVITY IS EXPRESSED AS A NUMBER PER KELVIN (/K). THIS MAYBE CLEARER WITH THE FOLLOWING EXAMPLE." }SA:"A 1.48 m STEEL ROD INCREASES IN LENGTH BY 1.78 mm WHEN HEATED FROM 0C TO 100C. CALCULATE THEEXPANSIVITY OF STEEL." 5'" = 0.00178/(1.48*100)"''" = 0.000012/K" 4'"HERE IS A TYPICAL SET OF VALUES OF EXPANSIVITY:" & '"SUBSTANCE EXPANSIVITY"''"SILICA 0.00000042/K INVAR 0.0000001/K GLASS 0.000009/K CONCRETE 0.000012/K STEEL 0.000012/K BRASS 0.000019/K ALUMINIUM 0.000027/K" 0SA:"A BIMETALLIC STRIP IS MADE FROM TWO METALS, OF WIDELY DIFFERING EXPANSIVITIES, WHICH ARE FIRMLY FIXED TOGETHER. IN ADDITION THE METALS MUST HAVE CONSIDERABLE STRENGTH TO WITHSTAND THE HIGH STRESSES IMPOSED ON THE STRIP THROUGH TEMPERATURE CHANGES." :'"THEIR DIFFERENT EXPANSIVITIES PRODUCES DIFFERENT EXTENSIONS OFTHE TWO PARTS OF THE BIMETALLIC STRIP AND THIS BENDS THE STRIP IN PORPORTION TO THE TEMPERATURECHANGE AND WITH GREAT FORCE." D{'"BIMETALLIC STRIPS ARE RELIABLE INEXPENSIVE AND ROBUST. THEY AREUSED WIDELY AS THERMOSTATS AND IN TEMPERATURE GAUGES." +SA:"  EXPANSION OF LIQUIDS " :'"THE LIQUID AND ITS CONTAINER BOTH CHANGE VOLUME ON HEATING AND THIS RESULTS IN TWO VALUES OF EXPANSIVITY: THE REAL AND THEAPPARTENT EXPANSIVITY." '"IN CALCULATING THE REAL VOLUME EXPANSIVITY OF A LIQUID THAT OF THE CONTAINER MUST ADDED TO THE APPARENT EXPANSION WHICH IS THE VALUE MEASURED." '"APPARENT EXPANSION IN LIQUIDS ISOFTEN OF GREAT PRACTICAL VALUE. A MERCURY IN GLASS THERMOMETER OFFERS A GOOD EXAMPLE. HOWEVER, ALL CALCULATIONS OF DENSITIES OFLIQUIDS ARE BASED ON THE REAL VOLUME EXPANSIVITY." SA:"THE VARIATION OF WATER DENSITY IS OF PARTICULAR IMPORTANCE IN NATURE BECAUSE NOT ONLY DOES ICEFLOAT ON WATER BUT AS WATER IS WARMED FROM 0 TO 4C INSTEAD OF EXPANDING IT ACTUALLY SHRINKS." '"THIS ANOMALOUS BEHAVIOUR MAKES WATER COOLED BELOW 4C FLOAT ON TOP OF WARMER WATER. ANY FURTHERCOOLING OF THE SURFACE WILL MAKEICE FORM ON TOP AND GRADUALLY FREEZE THE WATER FROM THE TOP DOWNWARDS - AN IMPORTANT FACT TOMARINE LIFE." *SA:"  EXPANSION OF GASES " Ʊ'"GASES, WITHOUT EXCEPTION, SHOW A VOLUME INCREASE WHEN HEATED ATA CONSTANT PRESSURE. THEY EXPANDBY 1/273 OF THEIR VOLUME AT 0C FOR EVERY KELVIN RISE IN THEIR TEMPERATURE." Љ'"WHEN THE VOLUME IS HELD CONSTANTTHEN THE GAS PRESSURE RISES BY 1/273 OF ITS VALUE AT 0C FOR EACH KELVIN RISE IN TEMPERATURE." ڋ'"THE PRESSURE, p, VOLUME, V, AND ABSOLUTE TEMPERATURE, T, OF A FIXED MASS OF GAS ARE RELATED BYTHE EXPRESSION:"''" pV/T = CONSTANT." SA:"FOR A FIXED MASS OF GAS INITIAL VALUES OF p1, V1 AND T1 AND THE FINAL VALUES p2, V2 AND T2 ARE CALCULATED FROM:"''" p1*V1/T1 = p2*V2/T2" '"THIS EQUATION IS THE BASIS FOR CALCULATING VOLUME, PRESSURE ANDDENSITY CHANGES THAT ACCOMPANY TEMPERATURE CHANGES IN GASES. THE CALCULATIONS ARE VERY DIRECTPROVIDED THAT THE TEMPERATURE ISFIRST CHANGED TO KELVINS WITH THE EQUATION:"''" T = t + 273" N'"A FEW EXAMPLES WILL SERVE MAKE THE USE OF THIS EQUATION MORE FAMILIAR." tSA:"YOU SHOULD MAKE EVERY EFFORT TO WORK OUT THESE EXAMPLES BEFORE SEEKING THE MODEL SOLUTION THAT IS PROVIDED." 0,140:255,0:SB:''"A GAS HAS A VOLUME OF 0.35 m ATA PRESSURE OF 100 kPa AND AT A TEMPERATURE OF 40C."''"WHAT WILL ITS VOLUME BE AT 190CAND 40 kPa PRESSURE?" qMA:F$="FIRST CHANGE THE TEMPERATURES TOKELVINS:":'F$''" 40C = 40+273 = 313 K"'" 190C = 190+237 = 527 K" 0SB:N=110 ::N:12 ,0 *x"THEN SUBSTITUTE IN THE EQUATION:"''" 100*0.35/313 = 40*Vx/527"''" Vx = 0.35*(100/40)*(527/313) = 1.47 m" 4}sa:"THE DENSITY OF CHLORINE AT 0C AND A PRESSURE OF 101 kPa IS 3.17 kg/m. WHAT IS THE DENSITY AT 200C AND 300 kPa?" >DMA:'F$''" 0C = 0 + 273 = 273 K"'" 200C = 200 + 273 = 473 K" HC'"THEN USE: = MASS/V AS:"''" p1*(MASS/1)/T1=p2*(MASS/2)/T2" Rw'"CANCELLING MASS FROM BOTH SIDE AND PUTTING IN THE VALUES GIVES:"''" 2 = 1*(p2/p1)*(T1/T2)"''" = 5.65 kg/m" \SA:"CALCULATE THE UPTHRUST ON A HOT AIR BALLOON HAVING A STRUCTURE MASS OF 25 kg AND FILLED WITH 300 m OF AIR AT 83C WHEN THE AMBIENT TEMPERATURE IS 14 C ANDTHE AIR DENSITY IS 1.230 kg/m." fEma:f$'" 14 c = 14 + 273 = 287 K 83 c = 83 + 273 = 356 K" pa'"THEN CALCULATE THE DENSITY OF AIR AT 356 K:"''" = 1.230*(287/356)"'" = 0.992 kg/m" z'"FINALLY CALCULATE THE MASS OF AIR IN THE BALLOON AT 14C AND AT 83C AND SUBTRACT THEM:"''" 300*1.230 = 369 kg"'" 300*0.992 = 298 kg" G'"THE UPTHRUST IS:"''" F = ((396-298)-25)*9.8"'" = 715 N" gSA:'''''"HERE IS A MINI QUIZ ON THE FIRSTTHREE TOPICS IN THIS PROGRAM.":LINE=10 :8000@: scr=0:A$(8) cr=3550 :L=8:qn=1:ln=1+.01z# =*(*99c):tm=20+(*60<):ex=.1}L*(*30+5):al=(1000*ex/ln/tm+.5):Q$=(al/100d)+"/K":Q$=Q$(2)+"0000"+Q$(3) "A ROD OF EXPANDITE ";LN;" m LONG"'"INCREASES IN LENGTH BY ";EX;" mm"'"WHEN HEATED FROM 0C TO ";TM;"C."'"WHAT IS ITS EXPANSIVITY?":SQ CR=3552 :L=1:QN=2:Q$="B":"AT WHICH TEMPERATURE IS THE DENSITY OF WATER GREATEST?"''"A. 0C"'"B. 4C"'"C. 10C"'"D. 37C"'"E. 100C" G10 ,0;"ENTER THE LETTER FOR THE ANSWER YOU CHOOSE. ":SQ QN=3:L=3:CR=3554 :SX:VL=100d*X:PR=(*200+150):TM1=(*20+10 ):TM2=(*300,+502):Q$=((VL*101e/PR*(TM2+273)/(TM1+273)+.5))+" cm" VL;" cm OF AIR AT A PRESSURE OF 101 kPa AND TEMPERATURE OF ";TM1;"C ARE HEATED TO ";TM2;"C AFTER BEING"'"COMPRESSED TO ";PR;" kPa."''"CALCULATE THE NEW VOLUME.":SQ .CR=3556 :L=1:QN=4:Q$="D" '"WHICH ONE OF THE FOLLOWING LIST OF PROPERTIES OF MERCURY HAS THEGREATEST VALUE IN THERMOMETRY?"''"A. LOW COST."'"B. LOW TOXICITY."'"C. SILVERY APPEARENCE."'"D. UNIFORM EXPANSION."'"E. LARGE LIQUIDUS RANGE." A'''"ENTER THE ONLY THE LETTER FOR THE ANSWER YOU CHOOSE.":SQ ơCR=3558 :L=3:QN=5:LN=1+.01z# =*(*70F+21):EX=.1}L*(*70F+20):Q$=((EX/LN/.019{T+.5))+" C" ȩ"A BRASS ROD, ";LN;" m LONG AT 0C,"'"HAS A VALUE OF EXPANSIVITY OF"'"0.000019/K."''"TO WHAT TEMPERATURE MUST IT BE RAISED SO AS TO EXPAND ";EX;" mm IN"'"LENGTH?":SQ .CR=3560 :L=1:QN=6:Q$="E" ."WHICH FACTOR IN THE CONSTRUCTIONOF A THERMOS FLASK HAS GREATEST INSULATION VALUE?"''"A. THICK DOUBLE-WALLED GLASS INTERIOR."'"B. INTERNAL SILVERED REFLECTING LAYER."'"C. FIBRE INSULATION AROUND THE FLASK."'"D. LIGHTWEIGHT CONSTRUCTION."'"E. HIGH VACUUM IN THE DOUBLE WALLING.":SQ ΓCR=3562 :L=6:QN=7:PR=.1}L*(*9000(#+1000):Q$=(.0001sQX*(690.6,ff*PR/101.325Jfg+.5))+" kg/m" {"THE DENSITY OF HYDROGEN AT 0C AND 101.325 kPa IS 0.0893 kg/m."''"CALCULATE THE DENSITY AT 80.0C AND ";PR;" kPa.":SQ 5cr=3564 :L=4:qn=8:q$="1410 kPa" n"WHAT PRESSURE WILL COMPRESS 1730 cm OF HELIUM AT 200 kPa AND 38C DOWN TO 300 cm AT 106C?":SQ 4cr=3566 :L=3:qn=9 :q$="950 kPa" ؐ"CALCULATE THE IGNITION PRESSURE OF THE FUEL MIXTURE DRAWN INTO ACYLINDER AT 95 kPa IN A PETROL ENGINE WITH A COMPRESSION RATIO OF 10:1.":SQ ګcr=3568 :L=3:qn=10 :dm=1+.0001sQX*(*9000(#+1000):hl=dm+0.0044y- :q$=(((dm-hl)/(0.000012pIS*hl-0.000019qb0v*dm)))+"C" "A BRASS JOURNAL OF ";DM;" cm"'"DIAMETER WORKS IN A BEARING OF"'HL;" cm DIAMETER BOTH AT 0C."''"AT WHAT WORKING TEMPERATURE WILLTHE BEARING START TO SEIZE IF BRASS HAS AN EXPANSIVITY OF 0.000019/K AND THE BEARING METALOF O.000012/K?":SQ 3570 "THE LENGTH INCREASE IS 0";EX/1000;" m,"'"THE ORIGINAL LENGTH IS ";LN;" m."'"AND THE RISE IN TEMPERATURE IS"'"";TM;" K."''"THE EXPANSIVITY IS:"''" = 0";EX/1000;"/(";LN;"*";TM;")"''" = ";Q$: "THE DENSITY OF WATER INCREASES FROM 0C TO 4C WHEN IT REACHES ITS MAXIMUM VALUE. IT THEN GETS LESS AS THE TEMPERATURE RISES.": "CHANGE C TO KELVINS:"''" ";TM1;"C = 273 + ";TM1;" = ";TM1+273;" K"'TM2;"C = 273 + ";TM2;" = ";TM2+273;" K":'"THEN CALCULATE THE NEW VOLUME FROM:"''" Vx = V1*(p1/p2)*(T2/T1)"''" = ";vl;"*(101/";pr;")*(";tm2+273;"/";tm1+273;")"''" = ";q$: "A THERMOMETRIC LIQUID MUST HAVE UNIFORM EXPANSION TO BE USEFUL."''"A LARGE LIQUIDUS RANGE, THAT IS A LARGE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE MELTING POINT AND BOILING POINT,IS DESIRABLE BUT NOT NECESSARY.": "THE ROD EXPANDS 0";EX/1000;" m AND HAS"'"A LENGTH OF ";LN;" m AT 0C."''"THE TEMPERATURE RISE NEEDED TO EXPAND IT IS:"''" t = 0";EX/1000;"/(";LN;"*0.000019)"''" = ";Q$: "ALL THE FACTORS ARE IMPORTANT BUT THE VACUUM BETWEEN THE TWO GLASS WALLS IN THE CONTAINER IS BY FAR THE GREATEST INSULATING FACTOR.": I"THE DENSITY IS GIVEN BY:"''" = 0.0893*(p2/p1)*(T1/T2)"''" = ";Q$ m"THE PRESSURE REQUIRED IS:"''" p2 = p1*(V1/V2)*(T2/T1)"''" = 200*(1730/300)*(379/311)"''" = ";q$: "THE COMPRESSION RATIO OF PISTON ENGINE IS THE CYLINDER PRESSURE WITH THE PISTON AT THE BOTTOM OFITS STROKE TO THAT AT THE POINT OF IGINTION."''"HERE THE PRESSURE IS SIMPLY:"''" 10 * 95 = 950 kPa": "USING THE SUBSCRIPT j FOR THE JOURNAL AND b FOR THE BEARING:"''" Dj = Djo*(1+j*t)"'" Db = Dbo*(1+b*t)"''" STANDS FOR THE EXPANSIVITY ANDt FOR THE TEMPERATURE RISE." '"THE BREARING WILL SEIZE WHEN THETWO DIAMETERS ARE EQUAL:"''" Djo(1+j*t) = Dbo(1+b*t)"''" t = (Dbo-Djo)/(j*Djo-b*Dbo)"''"PUTTING IN THE VALUES GIVES:"''" t = ";q$: nSA:SCR=10 8,7;" CONGRATULATIONS "'''" YOU HAVE SCORED FULL MARKS.":SB:3600 8,0;" YOUR SCORE WAS ";SCR;"/10"''"TRY AGAIN TO SEE IF YOU CAN GET FULL MARKS.":LINE=10 :8000@:3502 ):''"  BALLOON ESCAPE! " ''''"HERE IS A DESPERATE RACE AGAINSTTIDE WHEN A HOT AIR BALLOON HAS TO BE CHARGED WITH AIR AT THE RIGHT TEMPERATURE TO LIFT. BUT THE RISING TIDE ALLOWS NO MARGINFOR ERROR." $9''"ON THE OTHER HAND THINGS CAN GETTOO HOT FOR SAFETY." .:LINE=10 :8000@::" E X A M P L E " 8@'"Balloon mass ....... 158 kg"'"Balloon volume ...... 421 m" BP'"THE AIR TEMPERATURE IS ALWAYS 14C (287 K) AND ITS DENSITY IS 1.224 kg/m" L["FROM THE DATA GIVEN ABOVE YOU SHOULD CALCULATE A TEMPERATURE OF 140.9C FOR LIFT-OFF" V'"SHOULD YOU BE UNSURE OF THE WAY TO WORK OUT THE ANSWER RETURN TOTHE INDEX PAGE AND THE STUDY THESECTION ON EXPANSION AGAIN." `S''"THE TEMPERATURE MUST BE ENTERED CORRECT TO ONE DECIMAL PLACE.";:DIFF=20 jS"PRESS 'ENTER' WHEN YOU ARE READYENTER 'I' FOR THE INDEX. ";I$:I$="I"I$="i" t:B=0:K=B:DL=B:A=1:C=B:D=B:E=B:MS=(*30+142):VL=(*100d+400):Q$=(.1}L*(3513 *VL/(1.2242*VL-MS)+.5)-273):Q$<5Q$=Q$+".0" ~N=015:70F,N:20,5:10 ,7:30,4:20,0:20,-6:30,-2:20,-8:43++1.8ffff*N,N:196-3*N,0:N:0,0:255,0 17,16;"";0,0;"BALLOON MASS ........ ";MS;" kg"'"BALLOON VOLUME ...... ";VL;" m"''"YOUR ANSWER IS: C";#1;"PRESS 'X' FOR A CORRECTION." DN=133!:1;0,N:1;255,0  J=DLDIFF JA=1T$=:3,16;T$:T$=1A=0:B=1 B=1=""B=2 MB=2T$=T$+:3,16;T$:T$=2B=0:C=1 C=1=""C=2 MC=2T$=T$+:3,16;T$:T$=3C=0:D=1 D=1=""D=2 MD=2T$=T$+:3,16;T$:T$=4D=0:E=1 E=1=""E=2 BE=2T$=T$+:3,16;T$:T$=5E=0 {T$=5T$=Q$(5)17-K,16+K;" ":K=K+1:17-K,16+K;"":K=153900<  T$=5T$>Q$3950n >="X"Ŧ="x"A=2:E=0:3,16;" "  A=2=""A=1 J N (08,0;"TOO LATE- YOU HAVE DROWNED!" -xDIFF=DIFF+5:'''"PRESS 'ENTER' TO TRY AGAIN ENTER 'I' TO RETURN TO THE INDEX":I$:I$="I"I$="i"10 2 3700t '"TO MELT THE SALT REQUIRES:"''" Qm = 860*518.3 = 445.7 MJ" xSB:N=013 ::N v9 ,0;"THE TOTAL HEAT MUST BE GENERATEDBY THE HEATER IN:"''" t = (71.5+445.7)/.05 = 10344 s = 6 days" SA:"SOLIDS AND LIQUIDS COMPRESS ONLYA LITTLE UNDER HIGH PRESSURES SOTHE FUSION PROCESS IS AFFECTED ONLY SLIGHTLY BY LARGE CHANGES IN PRESSURE." n'"THE MELTING POINT OF ICE, FOR INSTANCE, FALLS ONLY 0.1 K BY THE APPLICATION OF A PRESSURE OF1000 kPa." '"THE PROCESS OF EVAPORATION, IN CONTRAST, IS VERY SENSITIVE TO PRESSURE BECAUSE GASES ARE VERY EASILY COMPRESSED AND LIQUIDS ARE NOT." '"AT THE SURFACE OF A LIQUID, AT ACONSTANT TEMPERATURE, PARTICLES OF THE LIQUID ARE ALL THE TIME EVAPORATING AND CONDENSING AT ANEQUAL RATE." SA:"THE RATE OF EVAPORATION DEPENDS ON THE TEMPERATURE AND THE AREA OF THE SURFACE. THE CONDENSATIONRATE DEPENDS ON THE AREA AND THETEMPERATRURE BUT IN ADDITION ON THE PRESSURE AS WELL." '"INCREASING THE PRESSURE MAKES THE RATE OF CONDENSATION GREATERAND CONVERSLY REDUCING IT MAKES THE RATE OF CONDENSATION LESS." Ⱦ'"WHEN THE LIQUID IS IN DYNAMIC EQUILIBRIUM WITH ITS OWN VAPOUR,AT A GIVEN TEMPERATURE, THEN THEPRESSURE OF THE VAPOUR IS AT A SPECIAL VALUE: THE SATURATED VAPOUR PRESSURE (s.v.p.)." d'"RAISING THE TEMPERATURE WILL INCREASE THE s.v.p. AND LOWERINGTHE TEMPERATURE WILL REDUCE IT." ]SA:"WHEN THE s.v.p. OF A LIQUID IS EQUAL TO ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE THE LIQUID WILL BOIL." y'"WHEN THE ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE ISREDUCED, ON A HIGH MOUNTAIN FOR EXAMPLE, THE LIQUID WILL BOIL ATA LOWER TEMPERATURE." '"WHEN THE ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE ISINCREASED, IN A PRESSURE COOKER OR IN AN AUTOCLAVE FOR INSTANCE,THE LIQUID WILL BOIL AT A HIGHERTEMPERATURE." '"FINALLY, WHEN THE PARTICLES THATHAVE EVAPORATED ARE CARRIED AWAYFROM THE LIQUID'S SURFACE, BY ANAIR CURRENT SAY, THE LIQUID GOESON EVAPORATING UNTIL IT HAS GONEALTOGETHER. HOWEVER, IN DOING SOIT GETS VERY COLD." SA:''''"HERE ARE A FEW PROBLEMS TO SHOW HOW THE SPECIFIC LATENT HEAT FORA GAS/LIQUID CHANGE IS APPLIED."''"AS USUAL YOU ARE ADVISED TO TRY YOUR OWN SKILL AT SOLVING THEM BEFORE YOU CONSULT THE ANSWERS PROVIDED." gSA:"WHAT IS THE SPECIFIC LATENT HEATOF EVAPORATION OF WATER AT 100CWHEN 9040 kJ CAN BOIL OFF 4 kg?" "#SB:''" l = 9040/4 = 2260 kJ/kg" ,sa:"WHAT RATE OF HEAT EXTRACTION IS USED IN A CONDENSER PRODUCING 50 kg OF RAW WHISKY (ETHANOL) PER HOUR IF THE SPECIFIC LATENT HEAT OF CONDENSATION OF WHISKY IS 853 kJ/kg?" 6Xsb:''"THE HEAT REQUIRED TO CONDENSE 50 kg OF WHISKY IS:"''" Q = 50*853 = 42.65 MJ" @?'"THE RATE OF HEAT EXTRACTION IS:"''" 42650/3600 = 12 kJ/s." JSA:"HOW MUCH BENZENE (l = 400 kJ/kg)IS BOILED OFF PER MINUTE BY THE SUPPLY OF 20 kg OF LOW PRESSURE STEAM PER HOUR (l = 2260 kJ/kg)?" T_SB:''"THE CONDENSING STEAM SUPPLIES HEAT AT THE RATE OF:"''" Q = 20*2260/60 = 753 kJ/min" ^U'"THE MASS OF BENZENE BOILED OFF BY THAT HEAT IS:"''" m = 753/400 = 1.88 kg/min" hEsa:''''"PRESS 'ENTER' TO RETURN TO THE INDEX PAGE.":SB:10 @4"ENTER 'S' TO SKIP THIS.";I$:I$="S"I$="s"LINE B #""ENTER YOUR ANSWER HERE: ";A$: #(A$(L)=Q$(L)9050Z# #2%19,0;"NO- ";Q$:SA:CR #54630 (I$=""30 <(1000*I$+500*(I$=3) t:M=120:x$:N=18:x$(1)+N-1,X$(3*N+13*N+3):N:M " 180180180180180180180180" " 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 90" " 96 16 32 16 96 0 0 0" " 48 72 72 48 0 0 0 0" " 48 72 48 72 48 0 0 0" " 96144 8 4 2 1 0 0" " 0 0 1 2 4 8144 96" " 16 16 16124 48 8 16 56" "" 6 9 16 32 64128 0 0" ," 0 0128 64 32 16 9 6" 6" 45 45 45 45 45 45 45 45" @" 0 48 8 8 20 34 65 0" J" 150150150150150150150150" T" 128 64 32 16 0 0 0 0" ^" 24 36 66129 0 0 0 0" h" 0 0 0 0129 66 36 24" r" 1 2 4 8 16 32 64128" " 32 80 16 32112 0 0 0" " 0 2124144 16 16 16 0" " 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1"  #:"  VIBRATION " '"A REGULAR DISTURBANCE OF MATTER ABOUT A MEAN POSITION IS CALLED A VIBRATION. THE DIRSTURBANCE USUALLY TAKES PLACE RAPIDLY." ,'"VIBRATIONS ARE EITHER FREE OR FORCED." |'"A SWING, A TUNING FORK, A WEIGHTHANGING FROM A SPRING ALL GIVE RISE TO 'FREE' VIBRATIONS WHEN THEY ARE SET IN MOTION." '"FORCED VIBRATIONS OCCUR WHEN THEDISTURBED MATTER VIBRATES IN A MANNER OUT OF ITS CONTROL. FOR EZ0XAMPLE A LOUDSPEAKER DRIVEN BY AN ELECTRICAL DEVICE OR THE BRANCHES OF A TREE MOVING IN THEWIND OR A BIRD'S WING IN FLIGHT." SA:"WHEN A FREE VIBRATION IS SET IN MOTION BY ANOTHER VIBRATION IN SYMPATHY WITH IT A CONDITION OF RESONANCE EXISTS. RESONANCE WILLBE DEALT WITH IN DETAIL LATER." $D'"AMPLITUDE MEASURES THE EXTENT OFDISTURBANCE IN A VIBRATION." .b'"FREQUENCY COUNTS THE NUMBER OF TIMES IN ONE SECOND THAT THE DISTURBANCE TAKES PLACE." 8'"PERIOD IS THE TIME INTERVAL FROMONE DISTURBANCE TO THE NEXT. THEPERIOD, , IS RELATED TO THE FREQUENCY, f, BY THE EQUATION:"''" = 1/f" L[SA:"ELASTICITY IN THE MEDIUM THAT ISVIBRATED IS ESSENTIAL FOR THAT VIBRATION TO EXIST." `'"VIBRATING SYSTEMS MAY GIVE RISE TO A SET OF WAVES. WAVE TRANSFERTHE ENERGY OF THE VIBRATION TO OTHER LOCATIONS DISTANT FROM THEVIBRATING SOURCE." j='''"THE NEXT SECTION DEALS WITH THE SUBJECT OF WAVES.":SC:  :"  WAVES " u''"IN AN ELASTIC MEDIUM A VIBRATINGDISTURBANCE PRODUCES A TRAIN OF WAVES GOING AWAY FRON THE CENTREOF DISTURBANCE." '"JUST A FEW SUCH WAVES RADIATE FROM POINT OF DISTURBANCE WHEN A STONE IS THROWN INTO A STILL POND. THE DISTURBANCE IN THIS CASE THE DISPLACEMENT OF THE MEDIUM, THE WATER SURFACE, IS ATRIGHT ANGLES TO THE DIRECTION OFMOVEMENT OF THE WAVE." k'"SUCH A WAVE IS CALLED TRANSVERSEBECAUSE THE WATER PARTICLES MOVEUP AND DOWN AS THE WAVE TRAVELS ALONG." LSA:D=0:"PRESS ENTER TO SEE AN ANIMATION OF A TRANSVERSE WAVE:":SB 6,0;"NOTICE THAT THE DISPLACEMENT OF A POINT ON THE WAVE IS JUST UP AND DOWN, THERE IS NO MOVEMENT IN THE DIRECION OF THE WAVE."''"KEY '8' INCREASES THE SPEED OF THE WAVE, KEY '5' SLOWS IT DOWN."''"PRESS '0' TO GO ON TO THE NEXT SECTION." ODL=9910&:W=14:Q=16:R=31:a$="":b$="":c$="":d$="" DN=116:A$=""+A$:C$=""+C$:B$=""+B$:D$=""+D$ 4n ><H$=""+D$(R):E$=""+A$(R):G$=""+C$(R):F$=""+B$(R) c4,0;D$:125},140:1,-1:127,134:0,12 DL c4,0;e$:125},138:1,-1:127,134:0,12 DL b4,0;g$:125},137:1,0:127,134:0,12 DL b4,0;b$:125},137:1,1:127,134:0,12 DL b4,0;h$:125},139:1,1:127,134:0,12 DL b4,0;a$:125},141:1,1:127,134:0,12 DL b4,0;c$:125},142:1,0:127,134:0,12 DL c4,0;f$:125},142:1,-1:127,134:0,12 DL .="5"D=D-3:D<-10 D=-10 ,="8"D=D+3:D>10 D=10 ="0"2310  2190 m:"LONGITUDINAL WAVES ARE CARRIED BY THE MEDIUM AS VIBRATIONS IN THE SAME DIRECTION AS THE WAVE MOTION." '"THE DISTURBANCE IN LONGITUDINAL WAVES TAKES THE FORM OF A SERIESOF ALTERNATING COMPRESSIONS AND EXPANSIONS ALONG THE WAVE TRAIN." z'"SUCH WAVES ARE QUITE COMMON AS COMPRESSION WAVES, IN SPRINGS FOR INSTANCE BUT THEY ARE BEST KNOWN AS SOUND WAVES." E'''"PRESS ENTER TO SEE AN ANIMATION OF A LONGITUDINAL WAVE MOTION." SA:"THE COMPRESSED REGION IS SHOWN AS DARK BANDS, THE REGION UNDER EXPANSION IS SHOWN CLEAR."''"NOTE THAT THE TWO PARTICLES EACHMAKE ONE COMPLETE VIBRATION IN THE TIME A WAVE TAKES TO PASS." 12 ,0;"THE MOTION OF TWO PARTICLES HAVEBEEN SIMULATED TO SHOW THAT THEYONLY MOVE ABOUT A MEAN POSITION BUT IN THE DIRECTION OF THE WAVEMOTION." X'"KEYS '5' AND '8' CAN CHANGE THE WAVE VELOCITY TO SOME EXTENT. PRESS '0' TO GO ON." $'d=3:a$="":b$="":c$="":d$="" .GN=116:A$=""+A$:B$=""+B$:C$=""+C$:D$=""+D$:N Ma$=a$(W)+" "+a$(Q) Nb$=b$(W)+" "+b$(Q) Oc$=c$(W)+" "+c$(Q) Pd$=d$(W)+" "+d$(Q) Q)e$=20+1+a$(W)+""+a$(Q) R)f$=20+1+b$(W)+""+b$(Q) S)g$=20+1+c$(W)+""+c$(Q) T)h$=20+1+d$(W)+""+d$(Q) V]9 ,0;a$:115s,99c:0,1:1,0:0,-1 `DL j_9 ,0;b$:115s,99c:0,1:117u,99c:0,1 tDL ~_9 ,0;c$:114r,99c:0,1:118v,99c:0,1 DL _9 ,0;d$:113q,99c:0,1:119w,99c:0,1 DL _9 ,0;e$:112p,99c:0,1:119w,99c:0,1 DL _9 ,0;f$:112p,99c:0,1:118v,99c:0,1 DL _9 ,0;g$:113q,99c:0,1:117u,99c:0,1 DL _9 ,0;h$:114r,99c:0,1:116t,99c:0,1 DL n,="8"d=d+3:d>10 d=10 x.="5"d=d-3:d<-10 d=-10 ="0"2710 2390V ):"  WAVE CHARACTERISTICS " e''"THE AMPLITUDE OF A WAVE IS THE MAXIMUM DISPLACEMENT FROM THE MEAN, 'AT REST', POSITION." '"THE WAVE FREQUENCY IS THE NUMBEROF COMPLETE WAVES THAT PASS A FIXED POINT IN ONE SECOND. IT ISMEASURED IN HERTZ (Hz)." '"THE WAVELENGTH () OF THE WAVE IS THE DISPLACEMENT OF THE WAVE IN THE INTERVAL OF ONE PERIOD."''"WAVELENGTH IS USUALLY DESCRIBED AS THE DISTANCE BETWEEN TWO WAVECRESTS, OR OTHER REFERENCE POINTBUT THE VECTOR PROPERTY IMPLIED IN 'DISPLACEMENT' IS IMPORTANT." sa:"  STANDING WAVES "''"WHEN A WAVE TRAIN IS COMBINED WITH AN EQUAL TRAIN GOING IN THEOPPOSITE DIRECTION A SERIES OF WAVES ARE PRODUCED WHICH SEEM TOBE STANDING STILL." W'"NODES ARE REGIONS IN A STANDING WAVE THAT HAVE VERY LITTLE OR NODISTURBANCE." G'"ANTINODES ARE THOSE REGIONS THATHAVE THE GREATEST DISTURBANCE." vJ=-112:14,26:M=01:N=06:16,(3-N)*J:N:M:J i16,5;"ANTINODE ANTINODE";20,0;"NODE NODE NODE" ҽSA:"WAVES ENJOY THE UNIQUE FACILITY OF BEING ABLE TO PASS THROUGH EACH OTHER UNAFFECTED."''"STANDING WAVES HAVE THE TWO WAVECOMPONENTS GOING THROUGH EACH OTHER AT THE SAME TIME." y'"A STANDING WAVE, THEREFORE, IS THE RESULT OF TWO EQUAL WAVES TRAVELLING THROUGH EAH OTHER IN OPPOSITE DIRECTIONS." /'"PRESS 'ENTER' TO SEE THIS EFFECTSIMULATED." ~2783 :M=111 :x$:N=18:x$(1)+N-1,X$(3*N+13*N+3):N:M "A 24 36 66129 0 0 0 0" "B 0 0 0129 66 36 24 0" "C 0 6 57192 0 0 0 0" "D 0 96156 3 0 0 0 0" "E 0 0192 57 6 0 0 0" "F 0 0 3156 96 0 0 0" "G 0 24231 0 0 0 0 0" "H 0 0 0231 24 0 0 0" "I 0 1 14112128 0 0 0" "J 0128112 14 1 0 0 0" "K 0 0 0255 0 0 0 0" SA:"THE TOP WAVE IS THE SAME AS THE BOTTOM WAVE BUT TRAVELLING THE OTHER WAY. THE MIDDLE WAVE IS A COMBINATION OF THE TWO."''"KEYS '8' AND '5' ALTER THE WAVE VELOCITIES. PRESS '0' TO GO ON." a'"NOTICE THAT THE WAVELENGTH OF THE STANDING WAVE IS THE SAME ASTHAT OF THE COMPONENT WAVES." MA$="":B$="":C$="":D$="":E$="":F$="":G$="":H$="":I$="":J$="":K$="" N=116:A$=""+A$:B$=""+B$:C$=""+C$:D$=""+D$:E$=""+E$:F$=""+F$:G$=""+G$:H$=""+H$:I$=""+I$:J$=""+J$:K$=""+K$ N JQ=12 :R=13 hW,0;A$ jQ,0;A$ lR,0;I$ nDL rW,0;G$ tQ,0;F$ vR,0;A$ xDL |W,0;B$ ~Q,0;D$ R,0;K$ DL W,0;H$ Q,0;E$ R,0;C$ DL W,0;C$ Q,0;C$ R,0;J$ DL W,0;E$ Q,0;H$ R,0;C$ DL W,0;D$ Q,0;B$ R,0;K$ DL W,0;F$ Q,0;G$ R,0;A$ DL ,="8"D=D+3:D>10 D=10 .="5"D=D-3:D<-10 D=-10 ="0"3010 2920h W6uD@@" @@@@ "DNNND@@@@@@PRX@@@Q6R@@@PRtDNND@@@@@@@@@@@@z@U6DND@A6@@@@@@@@@@@@@\D<ND@@@@@@@@tDNND\@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@\DNND\@@\DڦuD@@@@@@" @@@ "DNND@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@Z@@@\DND@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@\DND@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@\@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@\D ڦuD@@@@" @@@ "DNND@@@@@@@@@tDNND@@@@@@@@@@@@z@U6D.ND@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@tD$l`xXlf~uZj`dX`u`XZbhuj`dX`uXbfXbvDxDwZdj2vD|DwXbl XbvDxDwZnvD|DubbXlnubrdX`ubbXhfVuhp`X`uXbl XhvDDwXbfXbfvE6D8֔zZbbdub`Xjlpu֚z`bu֜z`l ubhXPfZRTuuuLNNNND@@@  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"DNND@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@\DiND@NN@@@@@@@@@@@@\@@@@@@@@@\D|NDNN@@@@@@@@@Z@@@@@@@@@\D~D@NN@@@@@@@\@@DwHub`XRuD@@@@" @@@ "DlND @ @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@\DND@@@@@@@@bphj@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@\DND@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@\DHND@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@j`@@@\D$ڦuD@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@tDNND@@@@@@@@@@@@@z@U6DND@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@\D<ND@@@@@@@@@@@@@@\@@@@@@@@@f`````@^Pbpl```@@@R\DND@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@\D ڦuD@@@@@@@@@@@tD!NND@@@\\\\\\\\@@fTb`bn@Z@@\\\\\\\\\\\\@@fTb`bl@@@@\\\\\\@@dTb`bh@&&@@\\\\\\\\\\\\\@@jTb`bh@@@@\\\\\\\\\@@dTb`bf@@@\\\\\\\\\\\\\@@fTb`bd@@@@\\\\\\\@@bTb`b`@D5 NND@@@@@@@@\@@@@@@@@@@@\DH\ڦuD@" @@@@@ "D]NND@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@\@@@@@@@@@\DpND@@@X@X@@@@@PR@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@\DND@@@@@@@@@@@@@\DڦuD@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@NN@tDND  @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@\DrND  @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@\DLڦuD@@@@" @@@@ "DNND@@@@@@@@@@@@@\DxND@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@\@@@@@@@@X@@@@@@@@\DND@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@\@@@@@@@@\@@@@@@@@@@@@@\D$fnfd(u֚zbduưHu֜z`nuƈu逰HVXuu(DDXrXrXrXrXrXrXrXr,DDXbhh Xbhh Xbhh Xbhh Xbhh 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"DNND@@@@@@tD-XhX`vD@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@PR\D-ɦ`XjjnudjjX`ubj`,Xjfju`XhujptXb`u`Xr`YN^j ud`(X`u`XZr`YN^j uZd`(X`uXbl Xd`(vDD-ܦڦuXhX`vD@@@@@@\DwZfb>OZfb>-Td``Xjlpu`Xf`<uڜ.ڦuXhX`vD@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@NN@@\D.֜z`bfbud``ZXppuu֜z`bh`ubj`,ZXjjnV^d\j@TPzdUtP^dS|p`Ru.-ڦuXhX`vD@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@\D.@֜z`br`|ud``ZXppZ^huubbrXjjnu`Xbbuڜ.U4ڦuXdX`vD@@@@@@@@@X@@\DwZfb>OZfb>OZfb>OZfb>OZfb>.^D@NN@@@@@NN@@@\@@@DwHuHzDEHzDEujpj`,.iuD@@" @@@@@ "DNND@@@@@@@@tDNND@@@@X@XDND@@@@DND@@@DND@@@@@DND\D.}(ND@@@@DND@@@DND@@@DND\@@X@XDND@@@DND@@@DND\D.brhXpujlpX`u֜z`j`dfubrnVXnudXZduubrdXbhujlpX`X[N^pu`XZduZjlpX`X[N^pu`Xd.z`bubrpVhfVTXru`Xhudh0UxPbZdTRXrnudbnVj TXb``uZb`UxPbZdTRX`u`Xbu`XZdu.dbnXbddul X`YN^dudbhXbd`ul XbdYN^hul XZbdYN^hubpnvXlhu`XflHuڜubpnvXjlpu`XZh`PuڦuXbhXdf.vDDwXrXdj2vDD.tD@NN@@@@@@@\@@@@@DwHu.uXl X`vD@@@@@@@@@@@\D.NND@NN@@@@@@@X@@NN@@@@@@@\DuݔHuHzDE/uXb`X`vD@@@@@@@&$@@@@$&DuDD>l>֜zdfnjjlj```u|zbfdjlU|PVbRW|PVdRvD@@DvvD@@Dw|PVfRVdjlU|PVhR>?HR֜zdjhr`$jr```uvD@@Dw|uF54630 (I$=""30 2I$>130 <1000*I$ >:M=12:D$:N=07:D:D$+N,D:N:M I"",480,72H,72H,480,0,0,0,0 @I"",0,480,8,8,20,34",65A,0  T:6,0;"TO ACCESS THIS HEADING LOAD THE PREVIOUS PROGRAM ON THE TAPE." _''"PRESS 'ENTER' TO RETURN TO THE INDEX PAGE."''"ENTER 'A' TO LOAD THE PREVIOUS PROGRAMME." I$:I$=""10 q:6,0;"REWIND THE TAPE TO THE START OF THE LAST PROGRAM, THEN PRESS 'ENTER' AND PLAY THE TAPE." y'"SHOULD YOU HAVE ANY DIFFICULTY YOU CAN ALSO LOAD THE PREVIOUS PROGRAM WITH THE INSTRUCTION:"''" LOAD """""  I$:""  1000 1000  1000  1000 p(:"  OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS " zx''"A MIRROR IS ONE OF THE SIMPLEST OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS TO STUDY ANDDRIVING MIRRORS PROVIDE A USEFULPRACTICAL EXAMPLE." '"THE PLANE DRIVING MIRROR IS A COMPROMISE BETWEEN THE WIDTH OF THE REARWARDS FIELD OF VIEW IT PROVIDES AND THE OBSTRUCTION OF FORWARD VISION." '"THE DIAGRAM SHOWN ON THE NEXT PAGE SHOWS HOW THE DISTANCE THE MIRROR IS FROM THE EYE CAN ALTERTHE WIDTH OF THE REARWARDS VIEW." Wsa:76L,164:-12 ,-92\:76L,164:-42*,-92\: T192,144:-12 ,-74J:192,144:-69E,-74J M76L,94^:-6,36$:76L,94^:-17,36$ Q192,112p:-2,17:192,112p:-14,17 ZN=040(2:1:35#,132+N:170,0:N:0 M59;,130:12 ,0:178,130:12 ,0 nN=011 3:61=+N,131:1,1:180+N,131:1,1:N |74J,166:7,5,/4:-2,-9 ,/8:76L,167:3,-2,/2 ~190,148:7,5,/4:-2,-9 ,/8:192,149:3,-2,/2 |74J,90Z:7,-5,-/4:-2,9 ,-/8:76L,89Y:3,3,-/2 190,110n:7,-5,-/4:-2,9 ,-/8:192,109m:3,3,-/2 15,0;"IN THESE DIAGRAMS THE EYE POINT HAS BEEN PROJECTED BEHIND THE MIRROR TO GIVE A VIEW AS THOUGH LOOKING THROUGH A SLOT. THIS MAKES THE ANGLE OF VISION MORE APPARENT." SA:"THE PLANE DRIVING MIRROR SUFFERSFROM BLURRING FROM VIBRATION, A RELATIVELY NARROW ANGLE OF REAR-WARDS VISION AND RE-ADJUSTMENT IS REQUIRED AS THE DRIVER'S OWN SEATING IS ALTERED." $'"PLANE DRIVING MIRRORS, APART FROM THEIR LOW COST AND GENERAL AVAILABILITY, HAVE SOME VIRTUE IN PROVIDING A TRUE PERSPECTIVE OF THE SCENE BEHIND THE VEHICLE." .'"A CONVEX, 'PANORAMIC', MIRROR GIVES ABOUT TWICE THE ANGLE OF VIEW OF A PLANE MIRROR OF THE SAME SIZE AND, THOUGH MUCH MORE EXPENSIVE, WILL BE AFFECTED BY VIBRATION TO A LESSER EXTENT ANDSELDOM NEEDS RE-ADUJSTING." 8SA:170,128:16,-16:185,128:0,-15:N=0202:1:160,112p+N:30,0:N:0 =184,110n:7,-5,-/4:-2,9 ,-/8:186,109m:3,3,-/2 BS185,128:60<,-73I:169,128:-80P,-43+ L170,129:14,0:170,128:14,0:172,127:10 ,0:175,126~:4,0 V"THE MUCH WIDER ANGLE IS OFFSET TO SOME EXTENT BY THE DISTORTIONOF PERSPECTIVE MAKING A DISTANT OBJECT SEEM MUCH FURTHER AWAY THAN IT REALLY IS." `14,0;"DRIVERS SOON GET USED TO THIS DISTORTION, HOWEVER, AND THE WIDER ANGLE AND CLEARER VISION PROVIDED BY 'PANORAMIC' MIRRORS IS AN IMPORTANT SAFETY FACTOR." j+SA:"  PHOTOGRAPHIC CAMERAS " t'"ESSENTIALLY A LIGHT TIGHT BOX FOR HOLDING A LIGHT SENSITIVE FILM AND DEVICES FOR FOCUSSING AND EXPOSING ON IT AN IMAGE, THECAMERA HAS GROWN INTO A COMPLEX REFINEMENT OF PRECISE CONTROLS WHICH ARE BETTER STUDIED ONE AT A TIME." ~'"FILM TRANSPORT. A COMBINATION OFGUIDES THAT HOLD THE FILM FLAT AND IN A PRECISE PLANE CAN BE FOUND IN MOST CAMERAS. PUNCHED HOLES ALONG THE EDGE OF THE FILMENGAGE WITH SPROCKETS IN THE TRANSPORT MECHANISM TO MOVE THE FILM ACCURATELY FRAME BY FRAME." SA:"SHUTTER. A DEVICE THAT LIMITS THE LENGTH OF TIME THE FILM IS EXPOSED TO THE IMAGE. TWO TYPES OF SHUTTERS ARE IN GENERAL USE: FOCAL PLANE SHUTTERS AND BETWEENTHE LENSE (COMPUR) SHUTTERS." '"FOCAL PLANE SHUTTERS PERMIT THE EXCHANGE OF THE CAMERA LENS AND ARE VERY RELIABLE UNDER EXTREME TEMPERATURES. THEY ARE USUALLY MADE FROM A LIGHT PROOF FLEXIBLEMATERIAL WITH A VARIABLE SLOT. THE EXPOSURE IS MADE AS THE SLOTSLIDES PAST THE FILM'S SURFACE." '"SHUTTERS MOUNTED BETWEEEN THE LENSES COMPRISE A SET OF THIN OVERLAPPING METAL BALES THAT ARESPRUNG OPEN AND THEN CLOSED TO EXPOSE THE FILM. THEY ARE USEFULFOR HIGH SPEED PHOTOGRAPHY." SA:"IRIS DIAPHRAGM. TO CONTROL THE LIGHT ENTERING THROUGH THE LENS A SYSTEM OF OVERLAPPING METAL BLADES ARE MOUNTED BETWEEN THE LENSES TO NARROW THE EFFECTIVE DIAMETER (APERTURE) OF THE FRONTLENS AT WILL." '"THE DIAPHRAGM IS USUALLY MARKED IN 'STOPS'. EACH STOP ALTERS THELIGHT ENTERING THE LENSE BY A FACTOR OF TWO. THE HIGHER THE STOP VALUE THE NARROWER IS THE DIAPHRAGM OPENING." D'"THE LENS GATHERS LIGHT TO MAKE A SHARP IMAGE ON THE FILM." {'"THE f VALUE OF A LENS IS THE RATIO OF ITS FOCAL LENGTH TO ITS DIAMETER AND MEASURES ITS LIGHT GATHERING POWER." kSA:"THE RESOLVING POWER OF A LENS IS THE FINEST DETAIL IT FOCUSSESON THE FILM,- COMMONLY 1/30 mm." c'"THE LENS IS MADE TO FOCUS A SHARP IMAGE BY MOVING IT CLOSER OR FURTHER AWAY FROM THE FILM." '"THIS MUST BE DONE EITHER BY PRE-SET MARKINGS ON THE LENS MOUNT OR BY DIVERTING THE LIGHT AWAY FROM THE FILM, WITH A PRISM OR MIRROR, AND FOCUSSING INTERNALLYON A SCREEN WHICH CAN BE VIEWED (THROUGH THE LENS FOCUSSING)." s'"THE GENERAL DISPOSITION OF THE VARIOUS PARTS OF THE CAMERA THATHAVE BEEN MENTIONED ARE SHOWN ONTHE NEXT PAGE." nSA:"  DIAGRAMMATIC CAMERA ":120x,90Z:0,40(:24,0,-:0,-96`:-24,0,-:0,32 :-30,0:0,2:2,0:0,-1:3,0:0,21,-/3:-3,0:0,-1:-2,0:0,2:30,0 137,110n,2:137,58:,2:130,546,4:130,114r,4:138,46.,3:138,121y,3:131,36$,7:131,130,7  132,118v:7,-7:0,-557:-6,-6:138,132:4,-10 :0,-76L:-3,-10 99c,88X:0,-8:1;0,-5:0,-8:120x,88X:-13 ,0:0,-4:0,-13 ,-/3:0,-4:13 ,0 102f,88X:0,-21:100d,88X:6,0:0,-21,/5:-6,0:99c,88X:-3,0:0,-21,-/7:3,0 (141,40(:28,0:16,21;"FILM";17,21;"TRANSPORT":140,100d:30,30:4,21;"FOCAL PLANE";5,21;"SHUTTER" 211 ,2;"LENS":91[,78N:-30,0:6,0;"IRIS DIAPHRAGM":99c,86V:0,7:-27,27: <{102f,70F:0,-8:-30,-30:17,0;"BETWEEN LENSES";18,3;"SHUTTER" FZ"ENTER 'R' TO REVIEW THIS SECTIONPRESS 'ENTER' TO GO ON.";I$:I$="R"I$="r"6250j P:"  SLIDE PROJECTORS "''"THIS INSTRUMENT PROVIDES A MEANSOF ILLUMINATING A TRANSPARENCY (SLIDE) AND FOCUSSING ITS IMAGE ON A SCREEN FOR VIEWING." Zj'"PROJECTORS COMPRISE THREE MAIN PARTS: THE LIGHT SOURCE, THE SLIDE MOUNTING AND THE PROJECTORLENS." d'"THE LIGHT SOURCE IS USUALLY A HIGH INTENSITY TUNGSTEN HALOGEN LAMP WITH A COMPACT FILAMENT. AS MUCH LIGHT AS IS PRACTICABLE IS THROWN FORWARD BY AN ELLIPTICMIRROR BEHIND THE LAMP FOCUSSED TO MAKE AN IMAGE OF THE FILAMENTCLOSE TO IT." nSA:"THE FORWARD LIGHT IS GATHERED BYA SINGLE LENS, THE CONDENSER, DESIGNED TO ILLUMINATE THE SLIDEWITH A UNIFORM CONE OF LIGHT WHICH IS ALSO ACCEPTED BY THE PROJECTOR LENS." x'"BEFORE REACHING THE SLIDE THE LIGHT PASSES THROUGH A 'HEAT FILTER' WHICH ABSORBS INFRA-RED AND ULTRA-VIOLET RADIATION BOTH OF WHICH WILL QUICKLY FADE ANY COLOURS ON THE SLIDE AND ALSO MAKE IT BUCKLE OUT OF FOCUS." SA:"THE SLIDE CARRIER POSITIONS THE SLIDE FIRMLY AN ACCURTALY IN THEFOCAL PLANE OF THE PROJECTOR LENSE. IT ALSO PROVIDES A MEANS OF REMOVING AND REPLACING THE SLIDE CONVENIENTLY AND, IN SOME PROJECTORS, AUTOMATICALLY." '"THE PROJECTOR LENS  FOCUSSES THEIMAGE ONTO A SCREEN. VARYING THEDISTANCE BETWEEN THE LENS AND THE SLIDE ALLOWS A PRECISE FOCUSTO BE ATTAINED." _'"THE GENERAL ARRANGEMENT OF THESECOMPONENETS IN A SLIDE PROJECTORIS SHOWN ON THE NEXT PAGE." SA:" SLIDE PROJECTOR ":60<,568:0,45-,-.65&fff*:67C,72H:N=05:1,1:-1,1:N:1,1:67C,79O,9 :N=05:65A+N,70F:0,-8:N %80P,63?:0,33! 10 ,-2:8,-5:5,-8:0,-4:-5,-8:-8,-5:-10 ,-2 \110n,62>:0,34":3,0:0,-34":-3,0 J120x,62>:0,34":1,0:0,-34" ܚ150,64@:0,30,/4:0,-30,/4:170,66B:0,26,/4:0,-26,/4 m=-112:n=06:175,69E+n*m+20*(m>0):-3-13 *(n>2)-16*(n>4),0:n:m wn=1-1-2:568,79O+17*n:24,-26*n:8,-4*n:61=,0 ]22,5*n:80P,502*n:171,79O-8*n:80P,-34"*n ]122z,79O-12 *n:480,19*n:n:251,34":0,90Z 7n=16:8+n,30;"SCREEN"(n):n ]579,100d:0,16:6,0;"ELLIPTIC";7,1;"MIRROR" "67C,62>:0,-30:17,6;"LAMP":111o,62>:0,-30:18,11 ;"""HEAT""";19,11 ;"FILTER" ,170,62>:0,-20:3,8;"CONDENSER";4,10 ;"LENS";17,18;"PROJECTOR";18,20;"LENS":90Z,80P:0,524 6A121y,90Z:0,20:7,13 ;"SLIDE" @^"ENTER 'R' TO REVIEW THIS SECTIONPRESS 'ENTER' TO GO ON. ";I$:I$="R"I$="r"6480P J:"  MINI QUIZ "'''"IN THIS QUIZ YOU SHOULD ANSWER THE QUESTIONS YOURSELF FIRST ANDTHEN COMPARE THEM WITH THE MODELANSWERS PROVIDED."'''"THIS IS BY FAR THE FASTEST WAY OF LEARNING." T<"ENTER 'S' TO SKIP THIS QUIZ.";I$:I$="S"I$="s"10 ^%:r$="State your answer correct to" X%scr=0:C$="":B$="0123456789" b(n=110 :B=(*B$)+1 l/C$=C$+B$(B):B$=B$(B-1)+B$(B+1) vn =110 :LN=10 *C$(N)+7100:0,0;"QUESTION ";N'''':ln qwl=((*999+100d))/1000:fr=(*1000+100d):q$=(.1}L*(wl*fr*10 ))+" m/s" b"WHAT IS THE VELOCITY OF A WAVE HAVING A WAVLENGTH OF ";WL;" m"'"AND A FREQUENCY OF ";FR;" Hz?" 'r$;" onedecimal place."  8990# Y"THE WAVE VELOCITY IS THE PRODUCTOF THE FREQUENCY( IN Hz) TIMES THE WAVELENGTH (IN m)" ,'" v = f* = ";fr;"*";wl''" = ";q$  /"ENTER THE NUMBER FOR THE ANSWER YOU CHOOSE." !''''"A VIBRATING STRING HAS:"''  7300  8990# "A VIBRATING STRING HAS A NODE ATEACH END (IT CAN ALSO HAVE NODESIN OTHER PLACES), AT LEAST ONE ANTINODE (IT CAN HAVE MORE) AND THE VIBRATING LENGTH IS HALF THEWAVELENGTH OF THE FUNDAMENTAL TONE."  9fr=(*800 +1100L):q$=(fr-1000)+" Hz" \"WHAT BEAT FREQUENCY IS HEARD WHEN TONES OF 1000 AND ";FR;" Hz"'"ARE SOUNDED TOGETHER?" 'r$;" onedecimal place."  8990# ~"THE BEATS HEARD IS PREDOMINANTLYTHE DIFFERENCE IN FREQUENCY OF THE TWO TONES:"''" ";FR;" - 1000 = ";FR-1000;" Hz"  ڻms=(1+.1}L*(*3+1))^2:tn=(*9 +1)^2:lng=.5+.01z# =*(*502+10 ):Q$=(.1}L*(5/LNG*(TN/MS+.5)))+" Hz" y"WHAT IS THE FUNDAMENTAL TONE OF A STRING ";LNG;" m LONG HAVING A"'"MASS OF ";MS;" kg/m UNDER A"'"TENSION OF ";TN;" N?" 'r$;" onedecimal places."  8990# ߴ"THE FUNDAMENTAL TONE OF A STRINGOF LENGTH L, MASS PER METRE M, AND UNDER A TENSION T, IS:"''" f = 1/(2*L)*(T/M) = 0.5/";LNG;"*(";TN;"/";MS;") = ";Q$  FL=10 +(*90Z):UL=12 +(*10 ):VL=.1}L*(10 /(1/FL-1/UL)+.5):Q$=(FL)+ " cm" "A CONCAVE MIRROR FORMS AN IMAGE ";VL;" cm FROM IT WHEN AN OBJECT"'"IS PLACED ";UL;" cm AWAY. WHAT IS"'"THE FOCAL LENGTH OF THE MIRROR?" 'r$;" thenearest centimetre."  8990# c"THE FOCAL LENGTH IS FOUND FROM THE EQUATION:"''" 1/f = 1/u + 1/v"''"i.e. f = u*v/(u+v)" ^'"PUTTING IN THE VALUES GIVES:"''" f = ";UL;"*(";VL;")/(";UL;"+(";VL;"))"'" = ";Q$  FL=10 +(*40():UL=12 +(*10 ):VL=.1}L*(10 /(1/FL-1/UL)+.5):Q$=(.01z# =*(100d*VL/UL+.5)) y"AN OBJECT PLACED ";UL;" cm FROM A"'"CONCAVE MIRROR FORMS AN IMAGE"'VL;" cm AWAY FROM IT. WHAT IS"'"THE MAGNIFICATION?" )'r$;" notmore than two decimal places."  8990# c"THE MAGNIFICATION IS THE RATIO OF IMAGE TO OBJECT DISTANCE:"''" m = v/u = ";vl;"/";ul;" = ";q$ ?'"A NEGATIVE MAGNIFICATION SHOWS THAT THE IMAGE IS VIRTUAL."  IN=10 +(*30):RF=(180/*((IN*/180)/1.33*=p)):q$=(.01z# =*(100d*(in*/180)/(rf*/180)+.5)) "WHAT IS THE REFRACTIVE CONSTANT OF A SOLUTION WHEN THE INCIDENT RAY ANGLE IS ";IN;" AND THE ANGLE"'"OF THE REFRACTED RAY IS ";RF;"?" )'r$;" notmore than two decimal places."  8990# ^"THE REFRACTIVE CONSTANT, n, IS:"''" n = i/r"'" = ";in;"/";rf;""'" = ";q$  _rf=40(+(*16):ni=.01z# =*(100d/(rf*/180)+.5):q$=(rf)+"" H"WHAT IS THE CRITICAL ANGLE FOR ALIQUID OF REFRACTIVE CONSTANT"'NI;"?" 6'r$;" thenearest . The degree symbol is GRAPHIC D."  8990# g"THE CRITICAL ANGLE,c, IS RELATEDTO THE REFRACTIVE CONSTANT, n, BY THE EQUATION:"''" n = 1/c" m'"THIS GIVES THE CRITICAL ANGLE INTERMS OF THE REFRACTIVE CONSTANTAS:"''" C = (n) = ";NI'" = ";Q$    FL=-10 +(*40():UL=12 +(*10 ):VL=.1}L*(10 /(1/FL-1/UL)+.5):Q$=(.01z# =*(100d*VL/UL+.5)) "CALCULATE THE MAGNIFICATION OF THE IMAGE PRODUCED BY A LENS, HAVING A FOCAL LENGTH OF ";FL;" cm,"'"OF AN OBJECT PLACED ";UL;" cm AWAY"'"FROM IT." ('r$;" notmore thantwo decimal places."  8990# O"THE MAGNIFICATION IS THE RATIO OF IMAGE TO OBJECT DISTANCE:"''" m = v/u" f'"THE GENERAL EQUATION:"''" 1/f = 1/u + 1/v"''"CAN BE COMBINED WITH THE ABOVE EQUATION TO GIVE:" ;'" m = f/(u-f) = ";fl;"/(";ul;"-";fl;")"'" = ";q$ *'"WHEN m IS POSITIVE THE IMAGE IS REAL."  kFL=20+10 *(*5):FN=2+(*5):DM=(FL/FN+.5):Q$=((FL/dm+.5)) e"WHAT IS THE f NUMBER OF A LENS HAVING A DIAMETER OF ";DM;" mm AND"'"A FOCAL LENGTH OF ";FL;" mm?" "'r$;" thenearest integer value."  8990# q"THE f NUMBER MEASURES THE LIGHT GATHERING POWER OF A LENS AND IS THE RATIO ITS FOCAL LENGTH TOITS DIAMETER." '" f No. = ";FL;"/";DM   scr10 72204 %8,0;" CONGRATULATIONS - FULL MARKS";10 ,0;"PRESS 'ENTER' TO LOAD THE NEXT PROGRAM OR ENTER 'I' TO RETURN TO THE INDEX PAGE.":I$:I$="I"I$="i" *"" 4:6,2;"YOU HAVE SCORED ";SCR;" OUT OF 10."''" THIS IS NOT GOOD ENOUGH."'''''"ENTER 'I' FOR THE INDEX PAGE."''"PRESS 'ENTER' TO TRY AGAIN.":I$:I$="I"I$="i"10 >:7000X x$="":y$="12345" Yj=15:x=(*y$+1):x$=x$+y$(x):y$=y$(x-1)+y$(x+1):j ;k=15:k;". ";:10 *x$(k)+7390:k  "NOT MORE THAN TWO NODE.": "NO NODES.": "NO OVERTONES.": "ONE NODE ONLY.": ,Q$=(N):LINE = *3+7440:LINE "A NODE AT EACH END.": "AT LEAST TWO NODES.": A"A FUNDAMENTAL TONE WAVELENGTH OF TWICE THE STRING LENGTH.": #4"ENTER YOUR ANSWER WITH CORRECT UNITS: ";A$: #(A$=Q$9050Z# #219,0;"NO- ";Q$ #<SA:LN+5 #F!'"YOUR SCORE IS ";SCR;"/";N:SA #PN:7200  #Z;19,0;"CORRECT.":SCR=SCR+1:9030F# ' "PRESS 'ENTER'. ";I$: ' "PRESS 'ENTER'. ";I$:: ' '"ADDENDUM"1 j TEACH 6 ͝q$ϝ,236099\,100d:23562 \,2 U8,3;" S T O P T H E T A P E "'''" PRESS ANY KEY TO GO ON" ".1}L,40(:=""6 5#0;"  COMPUTING ":200 :AMH=9910&:BX=9988':SZ=9990':SA=9997 ':SB=9996 ':NO=9908&:NE=9900&:EO=9902&:SE=9904&:SO=9906&:NW=9914&:WO=9916&:SQ=8990# ''" C O N T E N T S"'''" POWER SOURCES - CELLS .. 1"''" AMPS, VOLTS, OHMS ...... 2"''" CIRCUIT ARRANGEMENTS .... 3"''" INTERNAL RESISTANCE .... 4"''" HEATING EFFECTS ........ 5"''" MAGNETIC EFFECTS ....... 6"''" INDUCTION .............. 7" v20,0;" TO ACCESS A HEADING ENTER THE CORRESPONDING NUMBER.":I$:I$<480ůI$>55730 (I$=""30 2I$>130 <1000*I$ o:M=112 :D$:N=2253:D$(1)+(N-2)/3,D$(nn+2):N:M "000006102102231102102006" "000096102102231102102096" "096016032016096000000000" "048072072048000000000000" "016056084016016016016016" "000224192160016008004000" "000014006010016032064000" "H016016016124048008016056" ""000000032064255064032000" ,"000000004002255002004000" ^"O000060066066066036231000" "S032080016032112000000000"  Bn=12:116t,69E:no:-6,0:n: :"  CELLS "''"A SIMPLE ELECTRIC CELL CAN BE MADE BY PLACING ZINC AND COPPER PLATES IN A DILUTE ACID SOLUTIONAS SHOWN IN THE DIAGRAM." N=04:12 +N,25;" ":N:N=05:9 +N,26;7-(N>2);" ":N n198,88X:2,-2:0,-46.:40(,0:0,46.:2,2 '8,21;"COPPER ZINC" 7,0;"CONNECTING THE PLATES"'"THROUGH AN AMMETER,"'"AN ELECTRIC CURRENT"'"INDICATING DEVICE,"'"SHOWS THAT ELECTRICITY"'"FLOWS FROM THE COPPER"'"TO THE ZINC THROUGH"'"THE AMMETER." '"AT THE SAME TIME THE"'"ZINC SLOWLY DISSOLVES"'"IN THE ACID AND THE COPPER PLATEGETS COVERED WITH A MASS OF TINYHYDROGEN BUBBLES." $SA:"CLEARLY THE CELL WILL CEASE TO WORK WHEN ALL THE ZINC HAS GONE INTO SOLUTION BUT LONG BEFORE THAT THE CURRENT FALLS BECAUSE OF THE EFFECT OF THE HYDROGEN BUBBLES ON THE COPPER SURFACE." .'"THE HYDROGEN NOT ONLY OBSTRUCTS THE CHEMICAL ACTION TAKING PLACEON THE COPPER SURFACE, IT ALSO SETS UP A CELL OF ITS OWN IN OPPOSITION. THIS IS THE EFFECT CALLED POLARISATION" 8'"IN A USEFUL CELL POLARISATION EFFECTS MUST BE OVERCOME. THIS IS DONE IN THE DANIELL CELL BY HAVING THE COPPER IN A SOLUTION OF COPPER SULPHATE AND THE ZINC IN DILUTE ACID AS BEFORE. THE SOLUTIONS BEING SEPARATED BY A POROUS CONTAINER." BzSA:"THE COPPER SULPHATE SOLUTION IN EFFECT ELIMINATES THE HYDROGEN BUBBLES BY DEPOSITING COPPER IN PLACE OF HYDROGEN." LN=08:10 +N,21;" ":N:N=08:8+N,23;7-2*(N>1);"   ":N V_N=164@2:231,102f-N:207,102f-N:N:22,0 `o166,104h:2,-2:0,-78N:72H,0:0,78N:2,2 j224,96`:1,-1:13 ,0:1,1:169,96`:1,-1:12 ,0:1,1:192,96`:1,-1:21,0:1,1 t7,22;"Cu Zn" ~5,0;"THIS CELL CAN DELIVER MUCH MORE CURRENT FOR LONGER"'"PERIODS. IT WILL,"'"HOWEVER, CEASE TO"'"FUNCTION WHEN THE"'"COPPER SULPHATE"'"SOLUTION HAS BEEN"'"DEPLETED." s'"IN USE IT CAUSES"'"SPILLAGES AND TAKES"'"UP A GREAT DEAL OF"'"SPACE AS WELL AS"'"NEEDING CONSTANT"'"ATTENTION." kSA:"  THE LECLANCHE CELL "''"THIS CELL HAS NOW BEEN MODFIED TO MAKE THE FAMILIAR DRY CELL." '"THE COPPER PLATE OF THE DANIELL CELL HAS BEEN REPLACED BY A ROD OF GRAPHITE AND THE DEPOLARIZER IS A MIXTURE OF GRAPHITE WITH MANGANESE IV OXIDE." |'"THE ACID HAS BEEN REPLACED BY A JELLY OF AMMONIUM CHLORIDE AND STARCH. THE ZINC CONTAINER MAKESTHE NEGATIVE POTENTIAL." '"THE CELL, ONCE SPENT, CANNOT BE RE-CHARGED BUT THIS DRAWBACK IS MITIGATED BY THE LARGE CURRENT THE CELL CAN GIVE AND ITS QUICK RECOVERY FROM SHORT OVERLOADS." SA:N=011 :5+N,11 ;" ";4+N,14;"":N:4,11 ;" ";3,14;"" M86V,144:0,-106j:59;,0:0,106j ]85U,100d:-30,0:8,0;"ZINC(-)";9 ,0;"CASING" ض1,0;"CARBON(+)"'" ROD":112p,148:-8,8:-40(,0:130,142:10 ,10 :30,0:2,21;"SEAL" t130,94^:20,20:4,0:7,20;"DEPOLARIZING";8,20;"PASTE" 218,5;" SCHEMATIC DRY CELL " sa:"  SECONDARY CELLS "''"SECONDARY CELLS HAVE TO HAVE THEELECTRICITY PUT IN THEM FIRST. THEY HOLD THE ELECTRIC CHARGE READY TO BE DELIVERED WHEN IT ISWANTED." '"THE LEAD-ACID CELL CONVERTS LEADAND LEAD IV OXIDE ON THE PLATE TO LEAD SULPHATE WHEN DISCHARINGAND BACK TO LEAD AND LEAD OXIDE WHEN RECHARGING. THE CELL HOLDS ABOUT HALF THE ELECTRIC CHARGE PUT INTO IT."  '"WHEN SUPPLYING ELECTRICITY THE LEAD SULPHATE PRODUCED USES UP THE SULPHURIC ACID IN THE CELL AND THE ACID'S DENSITY FALLS FROM 1250 TO 1150 kg/m (1.25 TO 1.15 g/cm)." sa:n=013 :6+n,23;" ":n:n=05:3+2*(n=2*(n/2)):190+7*n,33!-4*(n=2*(n/2)):0,80P:1,0:0,-80P:n:0 7,24;"";18,23;"":182,14:524,0:0,115s:-524,0:0,-115s (1,7;" LEAD-ACID CELL ";6,5;"+ TERMINAL";5,3;"LEAD OXIDE PLATES";18,5;"LEAD PLATES";11 ,3;" SULPHURIC ACID ";14,6;"OUTER CASING";19,5;"- TERMINAL" 2160,133:36$,0:13 ,-13 :150,58::31,0:134,27:546,0 <SA:"  OTHER SECONDARY CELLS "''"THE NICKEL-IRON CELL (NiFe) IS SIMILAR IN CONSTRUCTION TO THE LEAD-ACID CELL BUT USES NICKEL AND IRON PLATES AND POTASSIUM HYDROXIDE SOLUTION BETWEEN THEM." F'"THE POSITIVE PLATE IS COATED WITH NICKEL HYDROXIDE AND THE NEGATIVE PLATE IS SIMPLY IRON. THIS CELL CAN DELIVER VERY HIGH CURRENTS WITHOUT DAMAGE." P'"THE NICKEL-CADMIUM CELL ALSO HASPOTASSIUM HYDROXIDE SOLUTION BETWEEN THE METAL PLATES. IT HASSOME ADVANTAGES OVER THE NICKEL IRON CELL IN TERMS OF EFFICIENCYAND THIS CELL IS INCREASINGLY USED RECHARGEABLE BATTERIES FOR DOMESTIC USE." Z.SA:"  ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE e.m.f. " d'"FOR ELECTRICITY TO FLOW THROUGH A CRICUIT IT MUST BE 'PUSHED' BYTHE e.m.f. THAT IS THE ELECTRIC FORCE THAT DRIVES THE CURRENT." n_'"THE TERM 'FORCE' IS DESCRIPTIVE,THERE IS NO MASS OR ACCELERATIONASSOCIATED WITH IT AT ALL." x'"THE e.m.f. OF A CELL IS MEASUREDIN VOLTS (V) AND EXPRESSES THE CAPABILITY THE CELL HAS TO MAKE ELECTRICITY FLOW IN A CIRCUIT." 100d,27:16,0:'"A CELL CAN BE REPRESENTED AS:";18,13 ;""''"WHERE THE POSITIVE END IS SHOWN BY THE LONGER THICK LINE." ;SA:"CELLS CAN COMBINE THEIR e.m.f. VALUES IN TWO WAYS:" |'"COMBINATION IN SERIES ADDS THE e.m.f. OF EACH CELL ACCORDING TOWHICH WAY ROUND THEY ARE PLACED IN THE ARRANGEMENT." 60<,91[:134,0:9 ,8;"1.5V 1.5V 1.5V";10 ,9 ;"";10 ,15;"";10 ,21;"";11 ,8;"<";22;">":67C,83S:114r,0:11 ,14;"4.5V"  60<,59;:134,0:13 ,8;"1.5V 1.5V 1.5V";14,9 ;"";14,15;"";14,21;"";15,8;"<";22;">":67C,513:114r,0:16,14;"1.5V":200:14,15;"" I'''"NOTICE THE SECOND ARRANGEMENT IS:"''" 1.5 - 1.5 + 1.5 = 1.5 V." XSA:"COMBINATION IN PARALLEL MAKES NODIFFERENCE TO THE e.m.f. OF THE COMBINATION." N=02:84T,83S+24*N:66B,0:11 -3*N,14;"";10 -3*N,13 ;"1.5V":N:84T,83S:0,480:150,83S:0,480 ҭ72H,107k:20,0:150,107k:10 ,0:13 ,10 ;"< >":83S,67C:64@,0:13 ,13 ;"1.5V" z'"THE CELLS, HOWEVER, MUST ALWAYS BE THE SAME WAY ROUND OR ELSE THEY WILL DISCHARGE THEMSELVES VERY QUICKLY.":SZ w:"  AMPS, VOLTS, OHMS "''"AN ELECTRIC CURRENT IS THE RATE OF FLOW OF ELECTRICITY THROUGH ACONDUCTOR." C'"CURRENT IS MEASURED IN AMPERES (A), FAMILIARLY CALLED 'AMPS'." '"THE CURRENT IS MADE TO FLOW IN THE CIRCUIT BY THE POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE APPLIED TO IT. THE POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE IS MEASUREDIN VOLTS." n'"THERE IS RESISTANCE TO THE FLOW OF CURRENT IN ANY CIRCUIT AND THAT RESISTANCE IS MEASURED IN OHMS ()." A'"THESE THREE QUANTITIES ARE VERY SIMPLY RELATED BY OHM'S LAW." SA:"  OHM'S LAW "''"THIS STATES THAT FOR A METALLIC CONDUCTOR THE RATIO OF VOLTAGE APPLIED (V) TO CURRENT THAT IT PRODUCES (I) IS CONSTANT (R):"''" V/I = R"  M'"THE CONSTANT, R, IS CALLED THE RESISTANCE AND IS MEASURED IN OHMS ()" '"WHEN A METAL IS NOT USED AS THE CONDUCTOR THEN OHM'S LAW DOES NOT REALLY APPLY. NOR DOES IT APPLY TO A METALLIC CONDUCTOR THAT CHANGES, FOR INSTANCE BY GETTING HOTTER, AS THE CURRENT FLOWS THROUGH IT."  iSA:"  CURRENTS AT A JUNCTION "''"THE ALGEBRAIC SUM OF CURRENTS ATA JUNCTION IS ALWAYS ZERO." *p'"THIS MEANS THAT THE SUM OF THE CURRENTS ENTERING A JUNCTION IS EQUAL TO THE SUM OF THE CURRENTSLEAVING IT." 45'"THE CURRENT Ix IN THE JUNCTION BELOW IS -1.5 A." >94^,62>:43+,-43+:115s,42*:0,20:115s,42*:25,0:115s,42*:-20,-20 H13 ,14;"Ix";13 ,7;"1.6A";16,18;"1.8A";19,18;"1.7A";19,9 ;"3.4A" R`104h,31:NE:132,24:SE:132,42*:EO:100d,568:SE \qSA:"  QUANTITY OF ELECTRICITY "''"THE QUANTITY OF ELECTRICITY IS MEASURED IN COULOMBS (C)." fx'"ONE COULOMB IS THE QUANTITY OF ELECTRICITY THAT FLOWS THROUGH A CONDUCTOR PASSING ONE AMPERE FOR ONE SECOND." p'"A COULOMB IS OFTEN REFERRED TO AS 'AMPERE-SECONDS' AND CAN BE CALCULATED SIMPLY BY MULTIPLYINGTHE CURRENT BY THE TIME, ALWAYS IN SECONDS, THAT IT FLOWS FOR." z'"ONE COULOMB IS A SMALL QUANTITY OF CHARGE. ELECTRICITY BOARDS CHARGE FOR THE ELECTRICITY THEY SUPPLY ON THE BASIS OF A 'UNIT' WHICH IS ABOUT 15 kC." sa:"  ELECTRICAL WORK AND POWER "''"THE VOLT CAN BE DEFINED AS THAT POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE THAT DOES THE WORK OF ONE JOULE WHEN IT CAUSES THE TRANSFER OF A COULOMBOF ELECTRICITY." 1'"MORE SIMPLY, A VOLT IS A JOULE PER COULOMB." '"RELATING THIS DEFINITION TO THE AMPERE GIVES ELECTRICAL POWER AS THE PRODUCT OF VOLTAGE (V) AND CURRENT (I):"''" W = V*I (WATTS)" SZ ):"  CIRCUIT ARRANGEMENTS " f'"A CONDUCTOR IS REPRESENTED BY A LINE. IT IS ASSUMED TO HAVE NO ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE AT ALL." '"A RESISTANCE IS WRITTEN AS A BOXWITH THE RESISTANCE VALUE IN IT:":9 ,13 ;"3":80P,99c:10 ,0:BX:10 ,0 }'"CONDUCTORS THAT CROSS OVER FORM A JUNCTION:":100d,579:30,0:115s,68D:0,-22 ''''"NO DIFFICULTY SHOULD ARISE IN UNDERSTANDING THE MEANING OF A CIRCUIT DIAGRAM. ALL ADDITIONAL SYMBOLS WILL BE EXPLAINED AS THEY ARE USED." *SA:"  RESISTORS IN SERIES " '"A SET OF RESISTORS IN SERIES SIMPLY ADD UP IN VALUE:";6,8;"8";6,15;"4";6,22;"7":40(,123{:12 ,0:BX:16,0:BX:16,0:BX:12 ,0 j'"IS EQUIVALENT TO:";10 ,14;"19":92\,91[:12 ,0:BX:12 ,0 T'"THERE ARE NO NEGATIVE VALUES FORRESISTORS, THEY ALWAYS HAVE A POSITIVE VALUE." &'"RESISTORS ARE CONSIDERED TO BE IN SERIES WHEN ALL THE CURRENT GOING THROUGH ONE MUST ALSO GO THROUGH THE OTHER ONE." 0+SA:"  RESISTORS IN PARALLEL " :'"RESISTORS IN PARALLEL CAN BE COMBINED INTO AN EQUIVALENT RESISTOR BY A SIMPLE RULE:"''" 1/Rc = 1/Ra + 1/Rb + 1/Rc + .." DE'"WHERE Rc IS THE COMBINED VALUE OF THE RESISTORS Ra, Rb, Rc ETC." N'"IN THIS CIRCUIT:":13 ,13 ;"4";15,13 ;"2";17,13 ;"1":N=02:80P,35#+16*N:12 ,0:BX:12 ,0:N X80P,35#:0,32 :144,35#:0,32 :70F,513:10 ,0:144,513:10 ,0 bB'" 1/Rc = 1/4 + 1/2 + 1/1 = 1.75"''"i.e. Rc = 1/1.75 = 0.57 " lsa:"  SERIES AND PARALLEL CIRCUITS "''"THE RULE IS SIMPLE: COMBINE THE PARALLEL RESISTORS FIRST AND THEN ADD ON THOSE IN SERIES." v'"AN EXAMPLE MAKES THIS CLEAR:";8,17;"2";10 ,17;"3";9 ,9 ;"5":47/,99c:12 ,0:BX:12 ,0:N=01:112p,91[+16*N:12 ,0:BX:12 ,0:N r112p,91[:0,16:177,91[:0,16:177,99c:12 ,0 b''"COMBINING THE PARALLEL RESISTORSFIRST:"''" 1/Rp = 1/2 + 1/3 = 0.8333"''"i.e. Rp = 1.2 " ?'"THE EQUIVALENT RESISTANCE IS:"''" Rc = 5 + 1.2 = 6.2 " DSA:"EXAMPLE:"''"WORK OUT THE COMBINED RESISTANCEOF THIS CIRCUIT:" 5,17;"5";7,17;"7";6,9 ;"9":47/,123{:12 ,0:BX:12 ,0:N=01:112p,115s+16*N:12 ,0:BX:12 ,0:N u112p,115s:0,16:177,115s:0,16:177,123{:12 ,0 8''"WORK THE ANSWER OUT AND THEN PRESS 'ENTER'":I$ y9 ,0;"FIRST COMBINE THE RESISTORS IN PARALLEL: "''" 1/Rp = 0.2 + 0.143 = 0.343"''"i.e. Rp = 2.92 " e'"THE CIRCUIT IS NOW REDUCED TO:";18,10 ;"9 2.92";20,5;"Rc = 11.92 " Q568,27:12 ,0:bx:18,0:bx:12 ,0 rsa:"  CALCULATING CURRENTS "''"THIS IS SIMPLY AN APPLICATION OFOHM'S LAW:"''" V/I = R I = V/R" '"IN ALL THESE CIRCUITS, UNLESS ITIS CLEARLY STATED OTHERWISE, THECELL OR BATTERY OF CELLS OFFERS ZERO RESISTANCE TO CURRENT FLOW." Y'"THE NEXT HEADING DEALS WITH THE CALCULATIONS INVOLVING INTERNAL RESISTANCE OF CELLS." '"THE SYMBOL: A"''"REPRESENTS AN AMMETER WHICH IS AN INSTRUMENT THAT MEASURES THE CURRENT, IT IS ASSUMED TO HAVE ZERO RESISTANCE.":113q,43+:12 ,0:AMH:12 ,0 tSA:"EXAMPLE."''"HERE THE CURRENT FLOWS THROUGH THE CELL, THE RESISTOR AND THE AMMETER, THEY ARE ALL IN SERIES:" 75K,91[:BX:17,0:AMH:14,0:0,24:-100d,0:0,-24:12 ,0 ]7,14;"";10 ,11 ;"5";10 ,17;"A";6,14;"2V" *0''''''"THE CURRENT IS:"''" I = 2/5 = 0.4 A" 4ISA:"EXAMPLE."''"HERE THE CELL HAS TO PUSH THE CURRENT THROUGH 11 :" >42*,99c:11 ,0:AMH:16,0:BX:16,0:BX:12 ,0:0,24:-151,0:0,-24 Hq5,14;"2V";6,14;"";9 ,7;"A";9 ,12 ;"3";9 ,19;"8" R.''"THE CURRENT IS:"''" I = 2/11 = 0.18 A" \2SA:"EXAMPLE."''"HERE THE RESISTANCE IS 1.71 :" f72H,107k:13 ,0:AMH:10 ,0:N=01:112p,99c+16*N:12 ,0:BX:12 ,0:N ps111o,99c:0,16:178,99c:0,32 :-106j,0:0,-24 z8,11 ;"A";7,17;"4";9 ,17;"3";4,16;"3V";5,15;"";5,17;"" o''''''"THE RESISTORS IN PARALLEL HAVE ACOMBINED VALUE OF:"''" 1/Rp = 1/4 + 1/3"''" i.e. Rp = 1.71 " /'"THE CURRENT IS:"''" I = 3/1.71 = 1.75 A" -SA:"EXAMPLE."''"HERE THE CURRENT IS 0.7 A" 44,,107k:7,0:BX:8,0:N=01:101e,99c+16*N:6,0:BX:12 ,0:N:160,107k:12 ,0:AMH:12 ,0:0,24:-154,0:0,-24 101e,99c:0,16:160,99c:0,16:4,13 ;"4.5V";5,12 ;"";5,14;"";5,16;"";7,15;"6";8,8;"3";8,22;"A";9 ,15;"8" e'"THE PARALLEL RESISTORS COMBINE TO GIVE:"''"1/Rp = 0.167 + 0.125 = 0.292"''"i.e. Rp = 3.43 " Z'"THE CIRCUIT RESISTANCE IS 6.43 AND THE CURRENT COMES TO:"''" I = 4.5/6.43 = 0.7 A" GSA:"  POTENTIAL DIFFRENCES "''"IN THE PREVIOUS CIRCUIT:" 44,,107k:7,0:BX:8,0:N=01:101e,99c+16*N:6,0:BX:12 ,0:N:160,107k:12 ,0:AMH:12 ,0:0,24:-154,0:0,-24 101e,99c:0,16:160,99c:0,16:4,13 ;"4.5V";5,12 ;"";5,14;"";5,16;"";7,15;"6";8,8;"3";8,22;"A";9 ,15;"8" '"A CURRENT OF 0.7 A GOES THROUGH THE 3 RESISTOR. THE POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE ACROSS THAT RESISTOR IS:"''" V = 3*0.7 = 2.1 V" @'"THIS IS A VARIANT OF OHM'S LAW:"''" V/I = R V = I*R" ^SA:"AGAIN IN THE SAME CIRCUIT THE POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE ACROSS THE RESISTORS IN PARALLEL:"  44,,107k:7,0:BX:8,0:N=01:101e,99c+16*N:6,0:BX:12 ,0:N:160,107k:12 ,0:AMH:12 ,0:0,24:-154,0:0,-24 101e,99c:0,16:160,99c:0,16:4,13 ;"4.5V";5,12 ;"";5,14;"";5,16;"";7,15;"6";8,8;"3";8,22;"A";9 ,15;"8" $'"IS 4.5 - 2.1 = 2.4 V" .A'"THE CURRENT IN THE 6 RESISTOR IS:"''" I = 2.4/6 = 0.4 A" 8:'"THE CURRENT IN THE 8 RESISTOR IS 0.7 - 0.4 = 0.3 A." B+SA:"  POWER IN THE CIRCUIT " L_'"ELECTRICAL POWER IS EXPRESSED AS THE PRODUCT OF CURRENT TIMES VOLTAGE:"''" P = I*V" V$'"POWER IS MEASURED IN WATTS (W)." `s'"THE EQUATION FOR POWER CAN BE COMBINED WITH OHM'S LAW AS:"''" P = I*V V = I*R"''" P = IR." jD'"AND ALSO AS:"''" P = I*V I = V/R"''" P = V/R" tGSA:"EXAMPLE:"''"WHAT POWER IS PRODUCED IN THE 5 RESISTOR BELOW?" ~75K,91[:BX:17,0:14,0:0,24:-100d,0:0,-24:26,0 F7,11 ;"";10 ,11 ;"5";6,11 ;"2V" 3'''''"THE POWER IS:"''" P = V/R = 2/5 = 0.8 W" =SA:"EXAMPLE:"''"WHAT POWER IS DEVELOPED IN EACH RESISTOR?" 44,,107k:7,0:BX:8,0:N=01:101e,99c+16*N:6,0:BX:12 ,0:N:160,107k:12 ,0:0,24:-128,0:0,-24 L101e,99c:0,16:160,99c:0,16 4,13 ;"3.3V";5,12 ;"";5,14;"";5,16;"";7,15;"9";8,8;"4";9 ,15;"3" ď'"THE PARALLEL RESISTORS COMBINE TO MAKE A VALUE OF 2.25 . THIS,ADDED TO THE 4 RESISTANCE IN SERIES MAKES A TOTAL RESISTANCE OF 6.25 ." M'"THE CURRENT FLOWING THROUGH THE BATTERY IS:"''" I = 3.3/6.25 = 0.53 A" [SB:N=031:M=1511 -1:M,N;" ";:M:N:10 ,0; ؗ'"THIS CURRENT FLOWS THROUGH THE 4 RESISTOR DEVELOPING 4*0.53 = 2.12 V ACROSS IT AND LEAVING 3.3-2.12 = 1.18 V ACROSS THE 9 AND 3 RESISTORS." SB:'"THE POWER IN EACH RESISTOR IS: ";'31'"4 RESISTOR 2.21/4 = 1.22 W 9 RESISTOR 1.18/9 = 0.16 W 3 RESISTOR 1.18/3 = 0.46 W" SZ (:"  INTERNAL RESISTANCE " '"THE VOLTAGE OF A CELL IS ALWAYS LESS THAN ITS e.m.f. BECAUSE AS CURRENT IS DRAWN FROM THE CELL SOME POTENTIAL IS LOST IN ITS INTERNAL RESISTANCE." '"THIS INTERNAL RESISTANCE DEPENDSON THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE CELL AND ON THE USE IT HAS HAD. THE e.m.f. REMAINS UNCHANGED FOR THELIFE OF THE CELL." '"THE INTERNAL RESISTANCE OF A CELL CAN BE MEASURED, WHEN ITS e.m.f. IS KNOWN, BY CONNECTING AKNOWN RESISTANCE TO IT AND THEN MEASURING THE CURRENT THAT FLOWSTHROUGH IT. THIS IS SHOWN IN THEFOLLOWING EXAMPLE." ȓSA:"A CELL WITH AN e.m.f. OF 1.12 V PASSES A CURRENT OF 1.32 A WHEN CONNECTED TO A 0.5 RESISTANCE.CALCULATE THE CELL'S INTERNAL RESISTANCE." ұ70F,99c:27,0:BX:19,0:AMH:10 ,0:0,24:70F,99c:0,24:12 ,0:BX:58:,0 ܤ6,12 ;"Ri";6,18;"";9 ,13 ;"0.5";9 ,20;"A";5,16;"1.12V":N=02503:N,110n:N <6,0;"INSIDE"'"THE CELL"''"OUTSIDE"'"THE CELL" '"THE e.m.f. OF THE CELL IS MAINLYDISSIPATED BY THE 0.5 RESISTORBUT THE REST IS LOST THROUGH THEINTERNAL RESISTANCE OF THE CELL:"  '" 1.12 - 1.32*Ri = 1.32*0.5" 3'" Ri = (1.12 - 0.66)/1.32"''" = 0.35 " SA:"AS LARGE CURRENTS ARE USUALLY INVOLVED IN THE MEASUREMENT OF A CELL'S RESISTANCE THE AMMETER RESISTANCE, THOUGH SMALL, HAS TOBE CONSIDERED." y40(,91[:12 ,0:BX:16,0:BX:7,0:AMH:6,0:0,24: "z40(,91[:0,24:44,,0:BX:502,0:N=02503:N,102f:N ,b7,12 ;"Ri";10 ,8;1;"Rl Ra A";0;7,18;"" 612 ,0;"THE CALCULATION REMAINS SIMPLE, HOWEVER. THE AMMETER RESISTANCE (Ra) IS SIMPLY ADDED TO THE LOADRESISTANCE (Rl) AND THE INTERNALRESISTANCE CALCULATED AS BEFORE." @>'"AN EXAMPLE OF THIS CALCULATION FOLLOWS ON THE NEXT PAGE." JSA:"WHAT IS THE INTERNAL RESISTANCE OF A CELL HAVING AN e.m.f. OF 1.86 V AND DELIVERING A CURRENT OF 4.13 A WHEN A RESISTANCE OF 0.3 IS CONNECTED TO IT THROUGHAN AMMETER WITH A RESISTANCE OF O.O5 ?" Ty40(,91[:12 ,0:BX:17,0:BX:6,0:AMH:6,0:0,24: ^z40(,91[:0,24:44,,0:BX:502,0:N=02503:N,102f:N hc7,12 ;"Ri";10 ,7;1;"0.3 0.05 A";0;7,18;"" rk''''"THE VALUE OF Ri IS FOUND FROM:"''" 1.86-4.13*Ri = 4.13*(0.3+0.05)"''"i.e. Ri = 0.415/4.13 = 0.1 " |sa:"DIRECT MEASUREMENT OF INTERNAL RESISTANCE IS NOT PRACTICABLE WHEN THE VALUE IS VERY LOW, AS IT IS FOR LEAD-ACID AND NICKEL- IRON CELLS." '"IN THESE CASES THE RESISTANCE IS FOUND BY MEASURING THE HEAT PRODUCED INSIDE THE CELL WHEN ITDELIVERS A CONSTANT CURRENT OVERA LONG PERIOD OF TIME." @'"THAT CALCULATION IS DEALT WITH UNDER THE NEXT HEADING.":SZ q:"  HEATING EFFECTS "''"ALL FORMS OF ENERGY CAN CHANGE ENTIRELY INTO HEAT WITH NO LOSS AT ALL." s'"THE RATE OF SUPPLY OF ENERGY BY AN ENERGY SOURCE IS ITS POWER. THE POWER IS ALWAYS MEASURED IN WATTS (W)." '"MULTIPLYING THE POWER TAKEN FROMA SOURCE BY THE PERIOD OF TIME IT IS TAKEN FOR GIVES THE TOTAL ENERGY THAT IS USED. THIS ENERGYIS MEASURED IN JOULES." '"THESE COMMENTS APPLY TO POWER SOURCES OF ALL DESCRIPTIONS AND THE POWER AND ENERGY OBTAINED FROM THEM CAN ALWAYS BE MEASUREDAS THE HEAT THEY PRODUCE." SA:"AN ELECTRIC CELL IS A SOURCE OF ELECTRICAL POWER. THE POWER IT GIVES IS MEASURED AS THE CURRENTMULTIPLIED BY THE VOLTAGE:"''" P = I*V" r'"PROVIDED THAT THE CURRENT IS IN AMPERES (A) AND THE VOLTAGE IN VOLTS (V) THE POWER IS EXPRESSEDIN WATTS (W)." ]'"NOTICE THAT THE WATT IS THE RATEOF SUPPLY OF ENERGY AND IS EQUALTO ONE JOULE PER SECOND." Δ'"TO FIND THE HEAT SUPPLIED BY A POWER SOURCE SIMPLY MULTIPLY THEPOWER DELIVERED BY THE TIME, IN SECONDS, TO GET THE ANSWER AS JOULES OF HEAT." dSA:"EXAMPLE."''"CALCULATE THE HEAT PRODUCED BY A HEATING COIL RATED AT 3 kW ANDWORKING FOR 2 h." 4SB:'"THE HEAT IS:"''" Q = 3000*2*3600 = 2.16 MJ." _SB:'''"HOW MUCH HEAT IS PRODUCED WHEN ACURRENT OF 3 A IS USED FOR 7 h FROM A 240 V SOURCE?" 7SB:'"THE HEAT IS:"''" Q = 3*240*(7*3600) = 18.1 MJ" aSA:"HOW MUCH HEAT IS DEVELOPED IN A RESISTANCE OF 10 WHEN 20 V AREAPPLIED TO IT FOR 10 min?"  GSB:'"THE POWER IN THE RESISTANCE IS:"''" P = V/R = 400/10 = 40 W" @'"THE ENERGY DELIVERED IS:"''" Q = P*t = 40*(10*60) = 24 kJ" gsb:'''"CALCULATE THE HEAT DEVELOPED IN A COIL PASSING 13 A FOR 4.3 min WHEN ITS RESISTANCE IS 30 ." (7SB:'"THE POWER IS:"''" P = IR = 169*30 = 5.07 kW" 2='"THE HEAT DEVELOPED IS:"''" Q = 5.07*(4.3*60) = 1.3 MJ." <N=07::N FSA:"HOW LONG CAN A CURRENT OF 130 A PASS THROUGH A 5 COPPER COIL HAVING A MASS OF 12 kg AND WHEN IT WAS INITIALLY AT 18C?"''"Copper melts at 1083 C and has a specific thermal capacity of 460 J/kgK" PkSB:'"THE HEAT REQUIRES TO RAISE 12 kgOF COPPER FROM 18 TO 1083C IS:"''" Q = 12*460*(1083-18) = 5.88 MJ" ZF'"THE HEATING RATE OF THE COIL IS:"''"P = I*R = 130*5= 84.5 kJ/s" dM'"THE TIME TAKEN TO DELIVER THE 5.88 MJ IS:"''" t = 5880/84.5 = 70 s." nSA:"HOW LONG DOES IT TAKE A COPPER WIRE FUSE INITIALLY AT 18C TO 'BLOW' WITH A 20 A CURRENT WHEN ITS RESISTANCE IS 0.012 AND ITHAS A MASS OF 18.2 mg?"''"Copper melts at 1083 C and has a specific thermal capacity of 460 J/kgK" xNsb:'"THE HEAT REQUIRED IS:"''" Q = 0.0000182*460*(1082-18)"'" = 8.92 J" :'"THE RATE OF HEATING IS:"''" P = 20*0.012 = 4.8 J/s" 2'"THE FUSE 'BLOWS' IN:"''" t = 8.92/4.8 = 1.9 s" msa:"  RESISTANCE CHANGES "''"THE RESISTANCE OF A METAL WIRE USUALLY RISES WITH TEMPERATURE." \"THE EFFECT IS USED TO MEASURE TEMPERATURE FROM VERY LOW VALUESRIGHT UP TO OVER 1500C." '"IN THE LABORATORY THE PLATINUM RESISTANCE THERMOMETER IS USED FOR THIS WORK. PLATINUM DOES NOTOXIDISE WHEN HOT AND CHANGES ITSRESISTANCE UNIFORMLY OVER A WIDETEMPERATURE RANGE." '"APPLYING A POTENTIAL TO A METAL CAUSES A CURRENT OF ELECTRONS TOMOVE FROM ONE ATOM TO THE NEXT. THIS DRIFT IS OBSTRUCTED BY THE THERMAL AGITATION OF THE ATOMS WHICH INCREASES TEMPERATURE." SA:"IN CONTRAST THE RESISTANCE OF NON-METALS FALLS BECAUSE OF A RISE IN TEMPERATURE. ELECTRONS IN THESE SUBSTANCES ARE MUCH MORE FIRMLY BOUND TO THE ATOMS AND A RISE IN TEMPERATURE HELPS TO 'SHAKE THEM FREE'." '"CERTAIN CERAMIC SUBSTANCES SUCH AS FUSED OXIDES OF MANGANESE ANDNICKEL SHOW RESISTANCE CHANGES WITH TEMPERATURE OF A VERY HIGH ORDER. THESE ARE THE THERMISTOR BEADS AND ARE USED AS THE BASIS OF ELECTRONIC THERMOMETERS." SZ p:8,10 ;"COMPUTING":S(502):C(502):N=1502:S(N)=.001wn*(1000*(/25*N)):C(N)=.001wn*(1000*(/25*N)):N u':"  MAGNETIC EFFECTS " z'"AN ELECTRIC CURRENT ALWAYS HAS A MAGNETIC FIELD ASSOCIATED WITHIT. WHEN THE CURRENT FLOWS IN A STRAIGHT WIRE THE MAGNETIC FIELDSURROUNDS IT CONCENTRICALLY AS SHOWN IN THE DIAGRAM." 130,80P:0,19:SO:0,11 :80P,557:100d,0:-10 ,502:-80P,0:-10 ,-502:130,557:0,-10 :SO:0,-10 aM=17:N=1502:130+5*M*S(N),80P+2.5 *M*C(N):N:M 17,0;"THE MAGENTIC FIELD PATTERN WAS DRAWN IN THE DIRECTION OF THE MAGNETIC FLUX. IT WOULD BE DRAWNANTICLOCKWISE FOR A CURRENT THATFLOWS UPWARDS." [sa:"WHEN THE STRAIGHT WIRE IS BENT INTO A LOOP THE MAGNETIC FLUX ISTURNED INTO ITSELF:" 200:502,100d:30,0:EO:15,0:60<,138:0,-10 :SO:0,-25:N=15023:5*S(N)+N/200,-10 *C(N):N:0,-30:SO:0,-5 P=17:x=171:y=100d:X-40(,Y:70F,0:EO:6,0:M=-112:N=12:x+5*N-35#,y+10 *N*M:70F-10 *N,0,N*M:N:M M=-112:11 ,21;("x"m=-1):X,Y+P*M:X,Y+P*M,3:N=12:X,Y-4*N*M+P*M:J=15022 *2*N*C(J),3*N*M*S(J):J:N:M X9 ,5;"S";9 ,12 ;"N";9 ,16;"S";9 ,26;"N" 17,0;"THE DIRECTION OF THE MAGNETIC FLUX OUTSIDE THE COIL IS ALWAYS FROM NS, AS DRAWN IN THE FLUX PATTERNS SHOWN ABOVE.":200:18,5;"OUTSIDE THE COIL" SA:"A SOLENOID IS MADE UP OF A MANY TURNS OF WIRE IN THE SHAPE OF A LONG COIL. EACH TURN STRENGTHENSTHE MAGNETIC FIELD OF ADJACENT TURNS." N=-33:200-N*N,101e+7*N:-30,-4*N,-N/5:-90Z+2*N*N,0:-30,4*N,-N/5:N $X=169:Y=141:X,Y-9 :0,-7:SO:0,-13 :N=040(4:X-2*N,Y-502:-1,-1:-1,1:-3,20:-1,1:-1,-1:N:X-89Y,Y-502:0,-15:SO:0,-5 9 ,3;"N";9 ,28;"S";14,0;"VIEWING THE SOLENOID FROM THE LEFT SHOWS THE CURRENT FLOWING ANTI-CLOCKWISWE MAKING THAT END A NORTH POLE." $e'"VIEWING THE OTHER END SHOWS THATTHE FLOW IS CLOCKWISWE MAKING A SOUTH POLE AT THAT END." .sa:"INTRODUCING A METALLIC CORE MADEOF 'SOFT' IRON INTO THE SOLENOIDHAS THE EFFECT OF CONCENTRATING THE MAGNETIC FIELD PRODUCED AND SO INCREASING THE MAGNETISM." 8-''"ELECTROMAGNETS MAKE USE OF THIS EFFECT:" Bf13 ,20;" ";14,20;"     ";11 ,24;"O" L160,71G:32 ,16:8,0:32 ,-16:-72H,0:0,-16:72H,0:0,16 VM=07:N=0232:X=168+N+(M=2*(M/2)):X,63?-M:X+32 ,63?-M:N:M `202,92\:-75K,0:163,67C:-20,0:181,60<:-16,-16:-16,0:N=01:201+2*N,63?:0,40(:N j10 ,3;"CURRENT CABLE";13 ,3;"SOFT IRON CORE";16,3;"INSULATED HEAVY"'3;"DUTY COPPER COIL" tSA:"THE ELECTROMAGNET'S PRINCIPAL VALUE IS IN RELEASING THE LOAD OF FERROUS METAL IT CARRIES AT THE INSTANT THE CURRENT STOPS FLOWING." ~e'''"OTHER ELECTROMAGNETIC DEVICES THAT USE PERMANENT MAGNETS ARE DESCRIBED IN THE NEXT PROGRAM." SZ X+:"  ELECTROMAGNETIN INDUCTION " b'"A MAGNETIC FIELD CAN GENERATE ANELECTRIC CURRENT IN A CONDUCTOR ONLY IF THE FIELD AROUND IT IS CHANGING. A STEADY FIELD WILL HAVE NO EFFECT." lU'"THE FIELD MAY BE CHANGED BY THE MOVEMENT OF THE CONDUCTOR OR THEMAGNETIC SOURCE." v^'"THE FIELD MAY ALSO BE CHANGED BY A CHANGE IN ELECTRIC CURRENT THAT MAY BE PRODUCING IT." c'"THERE ARE OTHER WAYS OF ALTERINGTHE FIELD AROUND A CONDUCTOR BUTTHESE ARE OF MINOR IMPORTANCE." SA:"PRESS KEYS 5 AND 8 TO SEE THE MAGNET MOVE AND ITS EFFECT ON THE CURRENT IN THE COILS. PRESS 'S' FOR A SLOW MOVEMENT AND 'F' FOR A FAST ONE." 0F=0:DIS=0:7250R:7190 FA=6:B=12 :8000@:A=6:B=18:8000@ *=""dis=6dis=07240H G="8"F=0DIS<67200 :DIS=DIS+1:7190 G="5"f=0DIS>07210*:DIS=DIS-1:7190 ="F"Ŧ="f"F=1 ="S"Ŧ="s"F=0 ="0"7270f G="8"F=1DIS<572204:DIS=DIS+2:7190 G="5"F=1DIS>17230>:DIS=DIS-2:7190  7100 6,1;" ";6,1+DIS;" N S ":14+8*DIS,120x:28,0:0,7:-28,0:0,-7   /9 ,14;"";9 ,20;"": */9 ,14;"";9 ,20;"": 4/9 ,14;"";9 ,20;"": >/9 ,14;"";9 ,20;"": H09 ,14;"":9 ,20;"": R11 ,0;"NOTICE THAT THE APPROACHING POLEGENERATES A CURRENT THAT MAKES AN OPPOSING POLE AT THAT END OF THE COIL." \'"THIS EFFECT IS LENZ'S LAW:"''"THE DIRECTION OF THE INDUCED CURRENT ALWAYS OPPOSES THE FIELDCHANGE THAT INDUCES IT.";#0;"PRESS '0' TO GO ON.": f:CY=0:IN=1:D=3:"AN ALTERNATING MAGNETIC FIELD, i.e. THAT PRODUCED BY A MAGNET ROTATED AT A CONSTANT SPEED, INDUCES AN ALTERNATING CURRENT IN A COIL:":7390 p,A=7:B=15:8000@:1 \88X,112p:24,0:0,8:-24,0:0,-8 ?10 ,17;0;(""CY=1);(""CY=0) DN=0D:N \88X,112p:24,0:0,8:-24,0:0,-8 `95_,106j:16,16:-5,5:-16,-16:5,-5 ?10 ,17;0;(""CY=1);(""CY=0) DN=0D:N `95_,106j:16,16:-5,5:-16,-16:5,-5 ]104h,104h:0,24:-8,0:0,-24:8,0 !10 ,17;0;"" DN=0D:N ]104h,104h:0,24:-8,0:0,-24:8,0 a111o,110n:-16,16:-5,-5:16,-16:5,5 ?10 ,17;0;(""CY=1);(""CY=0) DN=0D:N a111o,110n:-16,16:-5,-5:16,-16:5,5 *="7"D=D-2:D<0D=0 ,="6"D=D+1:D>10 D=20 ="0"0:7420 CY=CY+IN:IN=-IN:7310 a12 ,0;"THE CURRENT COMPLETES ONE CYCLE WITH EACH COMPLETE ROTATION OF THE MAGNET." '"NOTICE THAT THERE IS PRACTICALLYNO TIME LAG BETWEEN CHANGES IN THE MAGNETIC FIELD AND CHANGES OF INDUCED CURRENT PRODUCED BY IT."; N#0;"USE KEYS '6' AND '7' TO CONTROL THE DISPLAY. PRESS '0' TO GO ON": >:"THE GRAPH OF CURRENT WITH TIME IS A SIMPLE 'SINE' WAVE:" |20,60<:0,80P:21,100d:160,0:10 ,22;"TIME";4,1;"I" GN=0150:21+N,100d+40(*(N*/70F):N n15,0;"THE FREQUENCY OF AN ALTERNATING CURRENT IS THE NUMBER OF CYCLES IT COMPLETES PER SECOND." $e'"THE FREQUENCY OF THE ELECTRICAL SUPPLY, FOR INSTANCE, IS FIFTY HERTZ,- FIFTY CYCLES PER SECOND." .SA:"TWO COILS LINKED BY A MAGNETIC FIELD CAN TRANSFER ENERGY FROM ONE TO THE OTHER WHEN ONE COIL PASSES AN ALTERNATING CURRENT." 8'"THE ALTERNATING CURRENT IN THE FIRST COIL (THE PRIMARY) WILL CREATE AN ALTERNATING MAGNETIC FIELD WHICH WILL INDUCE a.c. IN THE SECOND COIL (THE SECONDARY)." B1'"THIS IS THE ARRANGEMENT FOR A TRANSFORMER:" LgN=04:15+N,14;" ";5+2*(N>0N<4);" ";" ":N V90Z,24:20,0:N=06:111o,24+3*N:9 ,3:N:111o,46.:-20,0 `156,40(:-20,0:N=02:136,40(-3*N:-9 ,-3:N:136,30:20,0 j<17,5;"PRIMARY";17,20;"SECONDARY" tsSA:"THE MAGNETIC FIELD LINKING THE TWO COILS TRANSFERS THE ENERGY FROM ONE TO THE OTHER WITH HIGH EFFICIENCY." ~'"THE RATIO OF THE PRIMARY VOLTAGETO THE SECONDARY VOLTAGE EQUALS THE NUMBER OF PRIMARY COIL TURNSDIVIDED BY THE NUMBER IN THE SECONDARY COIL." '"WHEN THERE IS NO POWER LOSS IN THE TRANSFORMER, THE CURRENT IN THE PRIMARY TIMES THE PRIMARY TURNS EQUALS THE CURRENT IN THE SECONDARY TIMES THE TURNS IN THESECONDARY." 3SA:"THREE FACTORS GOVERN TRANSFORMEREFFICIENCY:" s'"1. THE ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE OF THE COILS. THE WIRE SHOULD BE AS THICK AS PRODUCTION COSTS WILL ALLOW." r'"2. THE CORE SHOULD BE MADE UP OF SHEETS (LAMINATED) OF METALS WHICH IS HIGHLY PERMEABLE TO MAGNETISM." '"3. THE INSULATION OF THE WIRE IN MAKING UP THE COILS SHOULD BE FREE FROM IMPERFECTIONS WHICH MIGHT ALLOW A LEAKAGE CURRENT TO FLOW." SZ @A,B;" " J8*B+12 ,(21-A)*8-20:-10 ,0:0,20:N=07:8*B+4+4*N,(21-A)*8+8:3,-9 :N T8*B+35#,(21-A)*8-1:0,-19,0:-9 ,0:8*B+19,(21-A)*8-20,7 ^ &Y-2,0:2,0:0,-2:23678~\,23678~\+2: &|-2,-2:2,2:-2,2:23677}\,23677}\+2:23678~\,23678~\-2: &6-2,0:2,0:0,2: &{-2,2:2,-2:2,2:23677}\,23677}\-2:23678~\,23678~\-2: &|-2,-2:2,2:2,-2:23677}\,23677}\-2:23678~\,23678~\+2: &Oؾ23677}\+7,23678~\,7:23678~\,23678~\+2: &-ؾ23677}\,23678~\-3,7: &Y2,0:-2,0:0,-2:23678~\,23678~\+2: &|2,2:-2,-2:2,-2:23677}\,23677}\-2:23678~\,23678~\+2: '~0,5:42*,0:0,-9 :-42*,0:0,4:23677}\,23677}\+41): '0"PRESS 'ENTER' FOR THE INDEX. ";I$:10 'I$="R"I$="r"PG ' ' "PRESS 'ENTER'. ";I$: ' "PRESS 'ENTER'. ";I$:: ' '"TEACH 6"1 m&'' ' '&&&&&&&# TEACH 7 "" `0::8,3;" S T O P T H E T A P E "'''" PRESS ANY KEY TO GO ON" ".1}L,40(:=""6 :SZ=9995 ':cm=9916&:SA=9997 ':SB=9996 ':SQ=8990#:NO=9900&:NE=9902&:EO=9904&:SE=9906&:SO=9908&:SW=9910&:WO=9912&:NW=9914&:  :'" C O N T E N T S"'''" THEORY OF MAGNETISM ...... 1"''" MAGNETIC FIELDS ......... 2"''" MAGNETIC DEVICES ......... 3"''" DOMESTIC ELECTRICITY .... 4"''" COST CALCULATIONS ....... 5"''" SAFETY .................. 6"''" d.c. POWER UNITS ........ 7" u19,1;"TO ACCESS A HEADING ENTER THE CORRESPONDING NUMBER.":I$:I$<480ůI$>55730 (I$=""30 2I$>130 F1000*I$ :"  THEORY OF MAGNETISM "''"THE EFFECT OF MAGNETISM HAS BEENKNOWN SINCE ANCIENT TIMES. THE TERM ITSELF IS DERIVED FROM THE NAME Magnesia, A REGION RICH IN MAGNETITE (LODESTONE) AND KNOWN TO THE ANCIENT GREEKS." '"THE MAGNETIC BEHAVIOUR OF ALL SUBSTANCES IS ATTRIBUTED TO THEORBITS OF CERTAIN ELECTRONS IN THEIR ATOMS. ALL SUBSTANCES PUT IN A VERY STRONG MAGNETIC FIELD WILL SHOW EITHER DIAMAGNETIC OR PARAMAGNETIC BEHAVIOUR." '"DIAMAGNETIC SUBSTANCES SUSPENDEDIN A POWERFUL MAGNETIC FIELD SETTHEMSELVED AT RIGHT ANGLES TO THE FIELD ALMOST SUGGESTING THEYWISHED THEY WERE NOT THERE." jSA:"PARAMAGNETIC SUBSTANCES TREATED IN THE SAME WAY ALIGN THEMSELVESIN THE DIRECTION OF THE FIELD." '"PARAMAGNETIC SUBSTANCES THAT AREVERY STRONGLY ATTRACTED, IRON AND IRON ALLOYS IN PARTICULAR, ARE TERMED FERROMAGNETIC." '"IRON AND IRON ALLOYS SHOW VERY STRONG PARAMAGNETIC PROPERTIES INDEED BUT THEY ARE NOT THE ONLYMETALS TO DO SO. ALLOYS MADE OF NICKEL, COBALT AND ALUMINIUM CANMAKE MUCH STRONGER MAGNETS THAT THE HARDEST STEEL." $sa:"THE 'ATOMIC MAGNETS' CREATED BY THE ELECTRON ORBITS ASSOCIATE INGROUPS TERMED DOMAINS. DOMAINS HAVE ALL THEIR 'ATOMIC MAGNETS' ALIGNED IN THE SAME DIRECION." .'"DOMAINS ARE NOT ALIGNED AMONGST THEMSELVES UNLESS AN EXTERNAL MAGNETIC FIELD IS APPLIED. THEN MORE AND MORE OF THE DOMAINS TAKE UP THE SAME DIRECTION AS THE EXTERNAL FIELD IS INCREASED." 8h'"REMOVAL OF THE EXTERNAL FIELD RETURNS THE DOMAINS TO DISARRAY IN SOFT FERROMAGNETIC MATERIALS." B'"IN HARD IRON ALLOYS THE MICRO- CRYSTALLINE DOMAINS STAY ALIGNEDAFTER REMOVAL OF THE MAGNETISINGFIELD THUS MAKING A PERMANENT MAGNET." L'SA:"THE DOMAIN THEORY EXPLAINS WHY:" Vc'"1. HIGH TEMPERATURES, MECHANICAL SHOCK AND VIBRATION WILL ALL DEMAGNETISE A STEEL MAGNET." `e'"2. BREAKING A MAGNET IN HALF MAKES TWO SMALLER MAGNETS WITH LITTLE LOSS OF STRENGTH." j'"3. INCREASING THE MAGNETISING FIELD WILL NOT INCREASE THE MAGNETISATION PAST A CERTAIN LIMIT- THE SATURATION LIMIT." tV'"4. THE HARDER THE STEEL THE MORE MAGNETISM IT RETAINS AFTER MAGNETISATION." ~SZ І:"  MAGENTIC FIELD "''"A MAGNET FREELY SUSPENDED WILL POINT IN A NORTH-SOUTH DIRECTIONDUE TO THE EARTH'S MAGNETISM." c'"THE END POINTING NORTH IS CALLEDTHE 'NORTH POLE' OF THE MAGNET. THE 'SOUTH POLE' POINTS SOUTH." '"WHEN TWO MAGENTS ARE BROUGHT TOGETHER THE REPULSION BETWEEN LIKE POLES, i.e. TWO NORTH OR TWO SOUTH POLES, IS EVIDENT,- THE POLES CLEARLY PUSH AWAY FROMEACH OTHER." v'"WHEN DIFFERENT (UNLIKE) POLES ARE BROUGHT TOGETHERE THERE IS MUTUAL ATTRACTION AND THE POLES 'STICK' TOGETHER." zSA:"THERE IS A FORCE BETWEEN MAGNETSWHICH DEPENDS ON THE STRENGTH OFTHE POLES AND THE DISTANCE THE MAGNETS ARE APART." '"THE STRENGTH OF THE MAGNETISM AROUND A MAGNET CAN BE MEASURED AND LINES PLOTTED THROUGH POINTSWHERE THE MAGNETISM IS OF EQUAL STRENGTH. THESE LINES ARE THE MAGNETIC FIELD LINES."  '"THE FIELD AROUND A MAGNET IS MAPPED OUT BY THE FIELD LINES. WHEN THE FIELD IS UNIFORM THE LINES ARE STRAIGHT, PARALLEL ANDEQUALLY SPACED." '"THE DIRECTION OF THE FIELD IS FROM NORTH TO SOUTH OUTSIDE THE MAGNET AND IS INICATED WITH AN ARROWHEAD ON THE LINE."  SA:"EXAMPLES OF FIELDS:":CM *e7:N=06:14+8*N,106j:0,30:NO:0,10 :N 4EM=-112:137,124|+20*M:EO:N=23:121y,124|:29,0,.4L**N*M:121y,124|:-16+10 *(N-2),-10 *M*(N-1),/8*N*M:150,124|:16-10 *(N-2),-10 *M*(N-1),-/8*N*M:N:M >{6,15;"N S":119w,119w:33!,0:0,9 :-33!,0:0,-9 Hn=-112:211,123{:0,-12 *n:eo+4*n:0,4*n:211,123{:8*n,8*n:se-4*n:3*n,3*n R211,123{:12 *n,0:so-4*n:4*n,0:211,123{:-8*n,8*n:sw+4*n:-3*n,3*n:n \u2,2;"NORTH";6,26;"N";9 ,4;"A";9 ,17;"B";9 ,26;"C" aY0:N=29 :N,0;1;8;8;8;31:N f''"A. EARTH'S MAGNETIC FIELD. NOTE THAT IT IS DIRECTED TOWARDS THE GEOGRAPHIC NORTH."''"B. THE FIELD AROUND A SHORT BAR MAGNET."''"C. THE FIELD AROUND THE NORTH POLE OF A BAR MAGNET HELD PERPENDICULARY TO THE SCREEN." pSA:"THE MAGNETIC FIELD AROUND A BAR MAGNET, AS AN EXAMPLE, CAN BE REVEALED BY COVERING THE MAGNET WITH A SHEET OF PAPER AND THEN SPRINKLING IT WITH IRON FILINGS." z`'"THE 'PICTURE' IS THEN DEVELOPED BY REPEATEDLY TOUCHING THE PAPERUNTIL THE PATTERN IS CLEAR." r'"ALTERNATIVELY A SMALL 'PLOTTING'COMPASS CAN BE USED HAVING FIRSTMARKED THE OUTLINE OF THE MAGNETON THE PAPER." '"IN THIS METHOD THE COMPASS IS PLACED AT ONE OF THE POLES AND ADOT IS MARKED AT THE TIP OF THE NEEDLE. THEN THE COMPASS IS PUT EXACTLY ON THAT DOT AND ANOTHER IS MARKED. A DIAGRAM IS SHOWN ONTHE NEXT PAGE ILLUSTRATING THIS." SA:7,10 ;"N S":79O,111o:89Y,0:0,9 :-89Y,0:0,-9 DN=010 :84T+8*N,124|-N*(N-10 ):N 92\,133,7:89Y,130:6,6:ne:124|,149,7:120x,149:8,0:eo x''"THE PROCEDURE IS REPEATED FOR DIFFERENT STARTING POINTS UNTIL THE FIELD PATTERN IS BUILT UP INSUFFICIENT DETAIL." SA:"THE RELATIVE PERMEABILITY OF A SUBSTANCE MEASURES THE EASE WITHWHICH THE MAGNETIC FLUX PASSES THROUGH IT COMPARED TO A VACUUM." ʆ'"DISTORTION OF A UNIFORM FIELD SHOWS THE EFFECT OF A PIECE OF HIGH PERMEABILITY IRON ON THE FIELD PATTERN AS SHOWN BELOW:":cm M7:n=-9 9 :60<+5*n,99c:0,-96` ބn>-6n<6M=-112:171+5*N,524-480*M:-5*N,40(*M,/20*N*M:M "n>-6n<62290 171+5*n,100d )0,-480+12 *(9 -n) L-3*(9 -n)*n,-6*(9 -n),-/16*(9 -n)*n :0,-12 *(9 -n),/8*(9 -n)*n K3*(9 -n)*n,-6*(9 -n),-/16*(9 -n)*n )0,-480+12 *(9 -n) n n=06:12 +n,20;" ":n:159,24:24,0:0,568:-24,0:0,-568 }n=08:20+10 *n,67C:so:131+10 *n,97a:so:131+10 *n,3:so:n HN=14:1;5;12 +N,21;"iron"(N):N L0:n=9 21:n,0;8;1;31:n:SZ  &:"  MAGNETIC DEVICES " c'"INTERACTION BETWEEN MAGNETIC FIELDS IS THE BASIS OF MANY OF TO-DAY'S ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT." ̵'"THE FIGURE BELOW SHOWS HOW A CONDUCTOR CARRYING A CURRENT REACTS TO A MAGNETIC FIELD THAT SURROUNDS IT. THE DIRECTION OF THE RESULTANT OF THE INTERACTIONSHOULD BE NOTED." hCM:7:N=07:10 ,71G-7*N:40(,0:wO:20,0:N w115s,43+:203,43+:n=7217:115s,43+,n:114r,43++n:wo:n Wn=06:162,22+7*n:2,0:wo:2,0 !30-n*(11 -n),0 11*n*(11 -n),-3*n,-/14*n 15,0,/6*n 1:1*n*(11 -n),3*n,-/14*n $30-n*(11 -n),0:n i162,71G:2,0:wo:15,0:480,0,/5:15,0 198,43+:10 ,0,/1.5@:-3,15,/3:-4,0,/2:-3,-15,/3:1,0:3,8,-/3:2,0:3,-8,-/3 *203,46.:0,32 :no &320,2;"FIELD + CONDUCTOR=INTERACTION" 0@0:N=12 21:1;N,0;31:N fSA:"THE WIRE BETWEEN THE MAGNET'S POLES WILL JUMP WHEN THE CURRENTIS SWITCHED ON BY PRESSING '6'" 60<,64@:0,40(:524,0:24,24:0,8:-557,0:-30,-30:8,6,-/3:535,0:24,24 513,106j:0,-42*:95_,0:-4,-4:-95_,0:4,4:47/,59;:95_,0:4,4 513,58::8,-5,/3:524,0:0,6:84T,104h:0,-19:524,0:-20,-20 85U,96`:93],0:-4,-4:-90Z,0:0,-1:90Z,0:4,4:83S,84T:-20,-20:111o,535:5,5:136,85U:0,-7:-14,-14 t177,95_:524,0:-36$,-36$:-524,0:112p,104h:0,7 s14,20;"";14,22;"";6,14;"N";12 ,14;"S";15,20;"6" [1:87W,502:0,4:47/,47/:0,-3:0 ="6"3330 3310 14,20;" ":160,59;:8,0:1:87W,502:0,4:47/,47/:0,-3:0 J130,502:0,4:47/,47/:0,-3 @18,0;"PRESS '1' TO REPEAT, PRESS '0' TO GO ON.": ="1":3240 ="0"33804 * 3350 4:"  THE GALVANOMETER "''"THIS INSTRUMENT IS DESIGNED FOR MEASURING VERY SMALL CURRENTS AND IT USUALLY HAS A RESISTANCE OF 1000 TO 20000 ." >'"A RECTANGULAR COIL OF FINE WIRE IS MOUNTED BETWEEN TWO PIVOTS WORKING IN STEEL OR JEWELLED CUPBEARINGS. EACH END OF THE COIL IS CONNECTED THROUGH A PIVOT TO A COILED HAIR-SPRING AND THEN TOTHE EXTERNAL CONNECTIONS." H'"A SOFT IRON CYLINDER IS MOUNTED IN THE RECTANGULAR COIL TO MAKE A UNIFORM MAGNETIC FIELD FOR THECOIL TO TURN IN. THIS CYLINDER, THE COIL AND THE PIVOTS ARE ALL ACCURATELY ALIGNED." RSA:"A POWERFUL MAGNETIC FIELD FROM APERMANENT MAGNET WITH SHAPED POLES PRODUCES A TURNING MOMENT ON THE COIL AS SOON AS A CURRENTPASSES THROUGH IT." \'"DAMPING IS PROVIDED TO PREVENT POINTER SWING BY THE FLATTENED SHAPE OF THE POINTER ITSELF AND BY THE ALUMINIUM FORMER ON WHICHTHE COIL IS WOUND." f'"THE COILED HAIR SPRINGS ON EACH PIVOT PROVIDE A COUNTER TURNING MOMENT ON THE DEFLECTION OF THE COIL MAKING IT PROPORTIONAL TO THE CURRENT PASSING THROUGH THE COIL, PROVIDE ADJUSTMENT OF THE POINTER POSITION AND CONNECT THECOIL TO THE EXTERNAL CONTACTS OFTHE INSTRUMENT." pySA:N=03:8+N,9 ;"   ":N:8,10 ;"N";8,18;"S" rM=-112:116t+M*20,112p:24*M,0:-2*M,-8:-22*M,0:0,-24:24*M,0:-2*M,24 tG116t+M*20,112p:0,-8:0,8,*M v0116t+44,*M,112p:M,-32 :M zm=-112:n=2072H:116t+.1}L*n*m*(/20*n),94^-25*m+.05|L*n*(/20*n):n:-20*M,0:m m=-112:n=9 +5*M32 +5*M.5:116t+10 *(.3*n),94^+12 *m+5*(.3*n):n:0,-24*M:m z1:N=05:108l+3*N,82R:0,8:1,0:0,-8:N:0 M=-112:N=-12 +(M>0)7:122z+M*2-2*(N>0)*N,110n-(M>0)-2*(N+10 ):N:M M=-11.5:N=24-13 -(M>0)-1:108l+M*2-(N<0)*N,110n-(M>0)-(N+10 ):N:M 116t,108l:0,20:NO:116t,76L:0,-20:SO:116t,108l:-32 ,16:0,-2:0,2:4,0 6,17;"(+)";13 ,9 ;"(-)";4,18;"HAIRSPRING";13 ,17;"SOFT IRON";14,17;"CYLINDER";12 ,6;"COIL";9 ,1;"MAGNET";9 ,25;"MAGNET";4,0;"CUP BEARING";16,0;"CUP BEARING" X195,99c:-30,0:92\,43+:10 ,0:12 ,12 :133,70F:-8,8:144,135:-13 ,-13 :92\,139:11 ,0:10 ,-10 :10 ,-10 :59;,99c:10 ,0:83S,75K:15,0:6,6 SA:"  SHUNTS AND MULTIPLIERS "''"THE GALVANOMETER MOVEMENT HAS A HIGH RESISTANCE. BY SHUNTING IT WITH A LOW VALUE RESISTANCE IN PARALLEL ONLY A FRACTION OF THE CURRENT ENTERS THE INSTRUMENT. THE REST IS BY-PASSED THROUGH THE 'SHUNT'." '"EXAMPLE."''"A GALVANOMETER WITH A RESISTANCEOF 20000 GIVING A FULL SCALE DEFLECTION AT 0.5 mA IS SHUNTED WITH 202 . CALCULATE THE FULL SCALE DEFLECTION CURRENT FOR THECOMBINATION." VSB:'"THE COMBINED RESISTANCE IS:"''" 1/Rc = 1/20000 + 1/202"''"i.e. Rc = 200 " Ԅ'"SINCE 0.5 mA PASSES THROUGH THE GALVANOMETER TO GIVE F.S.D.(FULLSCALE DEFLECTION) THE APPLIED VOLTAGE IS 0.0005*20000 = 10 V." O'"THE CURRENT FLOWING THROUGH THE COMBINATION IS:"''" Ic = 10/200 = 50 mA." ~sa:"PUTTING A SERIES RESISTANCE INTOTHE GALVANOMETER CIRCUIT WILL MULTIPLY THE VOLTAGE THAT GIVES F.S.D."''"EXAMPLE." '"A GALVANOMETER WITH A RESISTANCEOF 1000 AND F.S.D. OF 1 mA HASA SERIES RESISTANCE OF 9000 ADDED TO IT. WHAY VOLTAGE MUST BE APPLIED TO THE COMBINATION TOGIVE F.S.D.?" ESB:''"THE COMBINED RESISTANCE IS:"''" Rc = 1000 + 9000 = 10000 " z'"THIS TOTAL RESISTANCE MUST PASS 1 mA TO GIVE F.S.D."''"THE POTENTIAL REQUIRED IS:"''" V = 10000 * 0.001 = 10 V."'''' (SA:"  THE LOUDSPEAKER " V'"THE LOUDSPEAKER IS USUALLY THE LEAST EFFICIENT PART OF A SOUND AMPLIFIER SYSTEM:" $}:5,21;"";21,21;"":N=04:11 +N,15;"";(""N=2*(N/2)):N .172,132:0,-4,-/2:-27,-557:0,-12 ,-:27,-546:0,-4,-/2 8L132,73I:13 ,0:132,62>:13 ,0 BJN=09 2:134+N,74J:134+N,61=:N L5:176,0:0,136:0:171,134:-46.,-46.:125},47/:47/,-47/ VO144,61=:5,-10 :-22,-22:-30,0 `7,4;"COVER";9 ,4;"PAPER CONE";11 ,4;"VOICE COIL";13 ,4;"PERMANENT";14,4;"RING MAGNET";18,4;"CONTACTS" j75K,115s:75K,0:115s,99c:41),0:1:115s,83S:12 ,0:8,-8:0:107k,67C:20,0: txSA:"THE ALTERNATING CURRENT IN THE VOICE COIL OF THE LOUDSPEAKER CORRESPONDS TO THE SOUNDWAVE IT IS TO REPRODUCE." v'"INTERACTION BETWEEN THE FIELD FROM THE VOICE COIL AND THAT OF THE PERMANENT MAGNET DRIVES THE CONE TO AND FRO. THIS MOVEMENT GENERATES THE SOUND WAVES." x'"THE CONE BECOMES UNRESPONSIVE ATFREQUENCIES ABOVE 6000 Hz DUE TO'BREAK UP', i.e. PARTS OF THE CONE ARE GOING FORWARDS WHEN THEOTHER PARTS ARE GOING BACKWARDS." z{'"FREQUENCIES BELOW ABOUT 200 Hz ARE ALSO POORLY REPRODUCED AS THE WAVELENGTHS ARE TOO LARGE FOR THE CONE DIAMETER." ~,SA:"  MICROPONES AND PICKUPS " c'"THE MICROPHONE IS VERY SIMILAR TO A SMALL LOUDSPEAKER BUT ITS COILS HAS MANY MORE TURNS." v'"THE PICKUP HAS THREE PRINCIPAL PARTS:"''"1. THE STYLUS WHICH IS SHAPED TO WORK IN THE RECORD'S GROOVE," '"2. THE STEM HOLDING THE STYLUS AT ONE END AND A SMALL MAGNET AT THE OTHER. A RUBBER PAD IS USED TO HOLD THE STEM," '"3. THE COIL WHICH HAS THE MAGNET IN THE STEM AT ITS CENTRE AND WHICH GENERATES CURRENTS IN RESPONSE TO THE MOVEMENT OF STYLUS." !SA:0:"  THE d.c. MOTOR "''"INTERACTION BETWEEN THE FIELD FROM THE MAGNET AND THAT OF THE ROTATING COIL"'"(THE ROTOR)"'"CAUSES A TUR-"'"NING MOMENT."'"A COMMUTATOR"'"TURNS IN STEP"'"WITH THE COIL"'"REVERSING THE"'"DIRECTION OF"'"THE CURRENT"'"AT EACH HALF"'"TURN." b'"PRESS 'ENTER'"'"TO TURN THE"'"ROTOR AND KEEP IT PRESSED TO MAKE IT GO. PRESS '0' TO GO ON." 70:z=0:9500%:9540D%:F=5 15,19;"" 161,535:13 ,13 ::12 ,-21:16,16:-27,47/:-16,-16:12 ,-21:-15,-15  0 !15,19;0;"" 1:161,535:13 ,13 ::12 ,-21:16,16:-27,47/:-16,-16:12 ,-21:-15,-15:0 161,546:14,14:22,0:16,16:-502,0:-16,-16:22,0:-12 ,-12  0 15,19;"" 1:161,546:14,14:22,0:16,16:-502,0:-16,-16:22,0:-12 ,-12 :0 161,557:10 ,10 :-11 ,-22:16,16:24,502:-16,-16:-11 ,-22:-15,-15  0 15,19;"" Ƴ1:161,557:10 ,10 :-11 ,-22:16,16:24,502:-16,-16:-11 ,-22:-15,-15:0  ="0"3786  3760 z:Z=1:"  THE ROTATING COIL ALTERNATOR "''"ALTERNATING CURRENT (a.c.) IS PRODUCED BY AN ALTERNATOR." '"THE COIL IN THIS CASE IS DRIVEN EXTERNALLY, ROTATING IN A STRONGMAGNETIC FIELD. THE CURRENT THATIS INDUCED IN THE COIL IS TAKEN OUT THROUGH TWO SLIP RINGS AND COLLECTOR BRUSHES. THE RINGS ARENOT SPLIT AS IN THE COMMUTATOR IN THE d.c. MOTOR." s'"THE CURRENT PRODUCED BY WORKING AN ALTERNATOR IS SHOWN ON THE NEXT PAGE WITH A SIMULATION OF AWORKING MODEL." sa:17,0;"PRESS ANY KEY TO TURN THE COIL STEP BY STEP. PRESS '8' TO RUN THE ALTERNATOR. PRESS 'I' TO SEE THE CURRENT-TIME GRAPH BEINGDRAWN. PRESS '0' FOR THE INDEX." KST=1:TN=0:SN=TN:0:9500%:9560X%:F=5 160,85U:12 ,12 :11 ,-19:16,16:-24,42*:-16,-16:12 ,-21:-11 ,-11 :148,74J TN9600%  ST0 1:160,85U:12 ,12 :11 ,-19:16,16:-24,42*:-16,-16:12 ,-21:-11 ,-11 :148,74J:0 160,85U:15,15:22,0:16,16:-502,0:-16,-16:25,0:-12 ,-12 :148,75K:1,0 TN9602%  ST0 1:160,85U:15,15:22,0:16,16:-502,0:-16,-16:25,0:-12 ,-12 :148,75K:1,0:0  160,88X:12 ,12 :-12 ,-21:16,16:24,42*:-16,-16:-10 ,-17:-16,-16  TN9604%  ST0 1:160,88X:12 ,12 :-12 ,-21:16,16:24,42*:-16,-16:-10 ,-17:-16,-16:0 160,88X:12 ,12 :12 ,-21:16,16:-24,42*:-16,-16:11 ,-19:-14,-14:146,76L TN9606%  ST0 1:160,88X:12 ,12 :12 ,-21:16,16:-24,42*:-16,-16:11 ,-19:-14,-14:146,76L:0 160,88X:12 ,12 :25,0:16,16:-502,0:-16,-16:22,0:-12 ,-12 :146,75K  TN9608% ! ST0 "1:160,88X:12 ,12 :25,0:16,16:-502,0:-16,-16:22,0:-12 ,-12 :146,75K:0 ( 160,86V:11 ,11 :-10 ,-17:16,16:24,42*:-16,-16:-12 ,-21:-13 ,-13 *TN9610% + ST0 ,1: 160,86V:11 ,11 :-10 ,-17:16,16:24,42*:-16,-16:-12 ,-21:-13 ,-13 :0 .="I"TN=1 0="8"ST=0 < ="0"10 F 3830  :"  DOMESTIC ELECTRICITY "''"THE ELECTRICITY SUPPLY IN THE UNITED KINGDOM IS THE GOVERNED BY THE CENTRAL ELECTRICITY GENERATING BOARD (C.E.G.B.)." '"THIS BOARD IS RESPONSIBLE FOR THE GENERATION OF ELECTRICITY. IT DELEGATES TO VARIOUS REGIONALBOARDS THE MAINTENANCE OF SUPPLYAND THE COLLECTION OF PAYMENT FOR THE ELECTRICITY USED BY INDUSTRIAL AND BY DOMESTIC CONSUMERS." '"DISTRIBUTION OF THE POWER THAT IS GENERATED AT VARIOUS POWER STATIONS THROUGHOUT THE COUNTRY IS CARRIED OUT THROUGH A NETWORKOF HIGH VOLTAGE POWER LINES: THEGRID SYSTEM." SA:"THE VOLTAGE HAS TO BE AS HIGH ASIS PRACTICABLE IN ORDER TO MAKE THE LOSS DUE TO THE ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE OF THE CABLES A SMALLFRACTION OF THE POWER BEING SENTTO THE CONSUMER." ș'"CONSIDER THE LOSS DUE TO A CABLEOF 10 RESISTANCE. TO TRANSMIT 1 MW THROUGH IT AT 10000 V WOULDCAUSE A CURRENT OF:"''" I = 1000000/10000 = 100 A" f'"TO FLOW AGAINST THAT RESISTANCE.THIS WOULD PRODUCE A LOSS OF:"''" P = I*R = 100*10 = 100 kW." U'"SENDING THE POWER AT 10000 V, THEREFORE, IMPLIES A LOSS OF 10%IN TRANSMISSION." aSA:"WHEN THE SAME POWER IS SENT AT 660000 V THE CURRENT IS:"''" I = 1000000/660000 = 1.67 A" >'"AND THE POWER LOST IS:"''" P = I*R = 1.67*10 = 30 W." K'"IN THIS CASE THE POWER LOSS DUE TO THE CABLE RESISTANCE IS ONLY 0.003%" '"HOWEVER, THE RESISTANCE LOSS IS NOT THE ONLY FACTOR TO BE TAKEN INTO ACCOUNT. LOSSES DUE TO THE LEAKAGE TO EARTH AND THE VERY MUCH GREATER EXPENSE OF PUTTING UP AND MAINTAINING HIGH VOLTAGE POWER LINES ARE JUST TWO OF MANYOTHER ASPECTS." SA:"STEP-UP TRANSFORMER ARE USED TO GET THE CURRENT UP TO THESE HIGHVOLTAGES AND STEP-DOWN TRANSFOR-MERS BRING THE VOLTAGE DOWN TO LOW TENSION, 240 V, FOR DOMESTICCONSUMERS." '"STEP-DOWN TRANSFORMERS ARE OFTENSITED AT GROUND LEVEL IN 'SUB STATIONS'. THESE AREAS ARE ALL CLEARLY MARKED WITH WARNINGS ANDARE LETHAL." ,SA:"THE 240 V a.c. MAINS ELECTRICITYSUPPLY HAS THE WAVEFORM SHOWN BELOW. THE COMPLETE CYCLE IS REPEATED FIFTY TIMES EACH SECONDWITH A HIGH DEGREE OF ACCURACY. THIS ALLOWS THE USE OF THE 50 HzMAINS FREQUENCY AS A STANDARD OFTIME FOR ELECTRIC CLOCKS." 616,10 :0,80P:16,502:100d,0:N=064@.3:N+17,502+34"*(N*/32 ):N:17,11 :WO:64@,0:EO:20,4;"20ms" @158,83S:NO:0,-66B:SO:92\,84T:NO:0,-32 :SO:24,74J:502,0:32 ,85U:170,0:64@,15:140,0:568,73I:no:0,-22:so J14,23;"680V";15,20;"PEAK TO PEAK";16,23;"VOLTAGE";10 ,0;"e.m.f.";14,6;"240V";12 ,13 ;"340V";13 ,13 ;"PEAK";14,12 ;"VOLTAGE" TL16,2;1;"Time":546,43+:10 ,0:EO ^>SB:N=80-1:N,0;31;" ";:N h0,0;"THE ROOT MEAN SQUARE (R.M.S.) VOLTAGE IS THE 'MAINS VOLTAGE' NOMINALLY 240 V. IT IS THE PEAK VOLTAGE DIVIDED BY 1.1414." r'"THE PEAK VOLTAGES ARE IMPORTANT IN RESPECT OF THE INSULATION REQUIRED TO PREVENT LEAKAGE OF CURRENT FROM THE CONDUCTORS." |SZ {:"  COSTING ELECTRICITY USAGE "''"COMMERCIALLY THE QUANTITY OF ELECTRICITY USED IS MEASURED IN 'UNITS'." Z'"ONE UNIT IS CONSUMED WHEN ONE kWOF ELECTRICAL POWER IS USED OVERA PERIOD OF ONE HOUR." s'"FOR EXAMPLE WHEN A 2.4 kW HEATERIS USED FOR 20 min THE THE POWERCONSUMED IS:"''" P = 2.4*20/60 = 0.8 UNITS." ''"THE PRICE OF ELECTRICITY IS SET BY THE C.E.G.B. AND ADJUSTED BY THE REGIONAL BOARDS TO TAKE INTOACCOUNT LOCAL CONDITIONS, 5.25 pPER UNIT IS TYPICAL." SA:"THERE ARE OTHER CHARGES MADE BY THE REGIONAL BOARDS IN ADDITION TO THAT FOR THE ELECTRICITY THATIS CONSUMED. THESE CHARGES TAKE INTO ACCOUNT THE METER HIRE AND THE PURPOSES FOR WHICH THE POWERIS SUPPLIED." '"THE REGIONAL BOARDS PUBLISH TARIFFS WHICH ARE OBTAINABLE AT THEIR LOCAL SHOWROOMS AND WHICH DETAIL THE CHARGES FOR THE POWERSUPPLIED. IN ADDITION THE SALES REPRESENTATIVES CAN PROVIDE VERYHELPFUL ADVICE." {'"THE CHARGES FOR ELECTRICITY ARE NORMALLY BILLED AT INTERVALS OF 91 DAYS. THIS CORRESPONDS TO ONE'QUARTER' OF THE YEAR." {SA:"IN THE EXAMPLES THAT FOLLOW YOU SHOULD WORK OUT YOUR OWN ANSWERSFIRST THEN COMPARE THEM WITH THEMODEL ANSWER GIVEN." 0,140:255,0:''"WHAT IS THE QUATERLY COST OF USING A REFRIGERATOR RATED AT 350 W AND WHICH RUNS FOR TWO MINUTES AND SWITCHES OFF FOR SEVEN? ELECTRICITY IS CHARGED AT5.75p PER UNIT." TSB:''"THE 350 W REFRIGERATOR IS ON FORA TOTAL OF:"''" 91*24*2/(2+7) = 485.3 h." 6'"THE UNITS CONSUMED ARE:"''" 0.35*485.3= 170 kWh" /'"THE COST IS:"''" 170*0.0575 = `9.77"''' SA:"AN AUTOMATIC WASHING MACHINE TAKES 20 min TO COMPLETE A WASH AND CONSUMES 600 W DURING THAT TIME. CALCULATE THE QUATERLY COST OF THE WEEKLY WASH WHEN THEkWh IS CHARGED AT 5.25p."  SSB:''"THE ELECTRICITY CONSUMED ON EACHWASH IS:"''" Q = 0.6*20/60 = 0.2 kWh." ;'"THE COST PER QUARTER IS:"''" 0.2*91/7*0.0525 = `0.14" SA:"A 100 W ELECTRIC LIGHT BULB WAS LEFT ON FOR TWO WEEKS DURING A HOLIDAY TO DISCOURAGE INTRUDERS.WHAT IS THE COST WHEN THE PRICE OF ELECTRICITY IS 5.8p PER kWh?" (9SB:''"THE COST IS:"''" 0.1*24*14*0.058 = `1.95":sz p:"  SAFETY "''"EACH YEAR RECORDS THOUSANDS OF ACCIDENTS INVOLVING ELECTRICITY IN THE HOME. ALL ARE UNPLEASANT SOME SERIOUSLY DAMAGING, EVEN FATAL." z'"YOUR FIRST LINE OF DEFENCE FROM THE DANGER OF ELECTRIC POWER IS INSULATION. RENEW ALL CABLES ANDWIRES THAT SHOW SIGNS OF FRAYINGOR ABRASION. THIS TYPE OF DAMAGEQUICKLY GETS WORSE." '"YOUR SECOND PROTECTION FROM AN ELECTRIC SHOCK IS EARTHING. MAKESURE THAT ALL CONDUCTING PARTS OF AN ELECTRICAL APPLIANCE ARE CONNECTED TO EARTH PROPERLY AND THAT THE CONNECTING PLUG IS ALSOCORRECTLY WIRED." HSA:"YOUR FINAL PROTECTION, MAINLY AGAINS FIRE DAMAGE, IS THE FUSE." '"THIS DEVICE IS SELDOM USED IN ANINTELLIGENT MANNER. OFTEN A FUSEIS USED WHICH WILL ALLOW FAR TOOMUCH CURRENT FLOW TO A DEFECTIVEAPPLIANCE BEFORE 'BLOWING'." '"A FUSE WHICH CAN CARRY RATHER MORE THAN THE NORMAL CURRENT TO THE DEVICE WILL GIVE THE BEST PROTECTION AGAINST AN INSULATIONBREAKDOWN. FOR EXAMPLE A 350 W ELECTRIC DRILL DRAWS A CURRENT OF 350/240 = 1.5 A AND SHOULD BEFUSED AT 2 A OR 3 A." N'"AGAIN A TELEVISION USING 150 W SHOULD NOT BE FUSED AT MORE THAT1 OR 2 A." SA:"APPLIANCES DRAWING CURRENTS IN EXCESS OF 13 A MUST BE PROVIDED WITH A DIRECT CONNECTION TO THE FUSE-BOX. 3.5 kW IMMERSION WATERHEATERS ARE AN EXAMPLE." .'"FINALLY THERE IS THE FUSE-BOX WHICH SAFEGUARDS AGAINST OVER- LOAD IN THE VARIOUS DISTRIBUTIONCIRCUITS IN THE HOUSE. THESE FUSES MUST NOT BE 'OVER RATED'. ANY FAULT CAUSING A FUSE IN THE FUSE-BOX TO 'BLOW' IS A SERIOUS FAULT AND MUST BE INVESTIGATED AND PUT RIGHT BEFORE THE FUSE ISREPAIRED." ʣ'"BEYOND THE DOMESTIC FUSE-BOX ARETHE ELECTRICITY BOARD'S OWN FUSES, NORMALLY RATED AT 60 A, PROTECTING THE CONSUMER FROM THEFULL POWER IN THE GRID SYSTEM." Q SA:"  THE 13 A PLUG "''"THIS PLUG IS CONNECTED AS SHOWN BELOW:" 112p,480:-16,0:-8,8,-/2:0,64@:8,8,-/2:480,0:8,-8,-/2:0,-64@:-8,-8,-/2:-16,0 0,7:8,0:0,10 :-8,0:0,23:4,0:0,-16:16,0:0,44,:-16,0:0,-8:-8,0:0,-8 -12 ,0:0,12 :8,0:0,12 ,:-24,0:-4,-4,/2:0,-502:16,0:0,12 :4,0:0,-17 H-8,0:0,-10 :8,0:0,-7 qX=120x:Y=118v:9700%:X=100d:Y=77M:9700%:X=131:Y=102f:9700% 114r,568:-9 ,0:0,8:32 ,0:0,-8:-23,0:0,-16:12 ,3:0,13 :109m,60<,2:131,60<,2 I114r,64@:0,6:12 ,0:0,-6 $103g,79O:0,3:1,0:0,4:11 ,0:0,-16:2,0:0,18:-15,0:0,-6 .118v,120x:-4,0:0,1:-12 ,0:0,-28:17,0:0,-23:2,0:0,25:-17,0:0,24:9 ,0 8128,100d:0,-2:-1,0:0,-4:-4,-4:0,-20:2,0:0,19:4,4:0,5:-1,0 B137,82R:6,0:137,106j:0,-24:-1,0:0,-8:8,0:0,8:-1,0:0,24:1,0:0,8:-8,0:0,-8:8,0 L135,107k:0,6:145,107k:0,6:135,75K:0,6:145,75K:0,6 VJ132,103g:3,3:0,4:-4,-4 `7,2;"GREEN/";8,2;"YELLOW";9 ,1;"(EARTH)";11 ,3;"BLUE";12 ,1;"(NEUTRAL)";13 ,20;"BROWN";14,20;"(LIVE)";5,20;"FUSE CLIPS" j16,6;"CABLE";17,6;"GRIP";5,20;"FUSE CLIPS";8,20;"CARTRIDGE";9 ,23;"FUSE" t120x,60<:-16,-16:-10 ,0:101e,84T:-40(,0:101e,107k:-32 ,0 ~127,91[:32 ,0:16,-16:140,100d:30,0:146,110n:18,18 _SA:"THE WIRE LOOPS THAT CONNECT TO THE TERMINALS IN THE PLUG SHOULDBE BENT AS SHOWN BELOW:" 112p,100d:0,16:2,0:0,4:1,0:0,-4:2,0:0,-15:114r,124|,3:114r,124|,4 [1:116t,123{:0,-4:1,0:0,2:0 10 ,0;"THE 'HOOK SHOULD BE BENT IN A CLOCKWISE MANNER AFTER TWISTING THE WIRE STRANDS TOGETHER. THE INSULATION OF THE WIRES SHOULD EXTEND RIGHT UP TO THE TERMINAL." '"THE CABLE SHOULD BE CLAMPED TO THE PLUG WITH THE CABLE GRIP PROVIDED. THIS WILL PREVENT THE CONNECTIONS TO THE TERMINALS BEING PULLED ON WHEN THE PLUG ISIN USE." SZ X:"  MAINS POWER UNITS "''"THESE UNITS ARE DESIGNED TO GIVEd.c. AT LOW VOLTAGE. THEY ARE USED FOR BATTERY CHARGING, MICROCOMPUTERS, POWERING CALCULATORS AND MODEL RAILWAYS AND RACING CARS AND MANY OTHER DEVICES." b'"A STEP-DOWN TRANSFORMER PROVIDESa.c. AT A LOW VOLTAGE OF ABOUT 3 TO 12 V. A RECTIFIER SYSTEM CHANGES THE a.c. TO CURRENT FLOWING ONE WAY ONLY AND THIS IS'SMOOTHED' BY A CAPACITOR. THE CIRCUIT ARRANGEMENT FOLLOWS ON THE NEXT PAGE." lsa:187,155:-110n,0:0,-32 :110n,0:10 ,171:513,0:0,-65A:-513,0 vCN=17:N,7;"";(""(N>2N<6)):N %0,5;"x";1,5;"F";0,2;"";1,2;"S";2,14;"";1,11 ;"RECTIFIER";4,1;"240 V";5,2;"a.c.";4,21;"CAPACITOR";2,24;"+V";6,24;"0V";9 ,3;"TRANSFORMER" B=0:9650% '"THIS IS A 'HALF-WAVE' RECTIFIER CIRCUIT. NOTICE THAT THE 'LIVE' LINE TO THE TRANSFORMER IS FIRSTSWITCHED (S) AND THEN FUSED (F)." N'"NOTICE ALSO THAT THE RECTIFIER SYMBOL 'ARROWS' TOWARDS THE (+) POLARITY." SB:9680% 11 ,0;"THE RECTIFIER ALLOWS CURRENT TO FLOW IN ONE DIRECTION DURING A HALF-CYCLE ONLY. THIS GIVES THE OUTPUT WAVEFORM:"'''"V"'',"TIME":170,20:10 ,0:EO T=2:9660% aSB:N=015:N,16-16*(N>9 );(N<9 );0;31;" ":N  9690% _11 ,40(:4,-1:N=05:4,4:28,-4:N 11 ,0;"THE 'SMOOTHING' CAPACITOR 'FILLSUP' WHEN THE RECTIFIER CONDUCTS AND DELIVERS CURRENT DURING THE NON-CONDUCTING HALF CYCLE:" GSB:N=121:N,14-14*(N>8);31:N  112p,155:12 ,0:16,-16:0,1:-16,-16:-1,0:-16,16:0,-1:16,16:3,14;" ";5,14;" " 110n,123{:14,0:107k,140:0,-15:0,-4,-:0,-15:80P,0  ?141,140:480,0:B=16:9650% *8,24;"0 V";4,24;"- V";10 ,0;"THIS IS A FULL WAVE RECTIFIER CIRCUIT. THE RECTIFIERS ARE IN A 'BRIDGE' CIRCUIT ARRANGED SO THAT CONDUCTION IS ONE WAY FOR THE COMPLETE CYCLE." 4'SB:T=1:9660%:9690% >u10 ,0;"THE OUTPUT WAVEFORM FROM THIS CIRCUIT IS SHOWN BELOW:";31'31'31'31 Hd12 ,43+:4,-1:N=010 :2,2:14,-2:N:SZ ? %9M=01:112p+96`*M,92\+32 *z:16,16:16,0:-16,-16:-16,0:0,-480,-/2*M:16,0:0,480,/2*(M-1):16,16:0,-480,-/2*(M-1):-16,-16:M %&1:N=047/2:224+N*(N<16),480+32 *z:0,80P:240,62>+N+32 *z:N:0 %0:104h,124|+Z*32 :0,-80P:8,0:0,72H:16,0:0,-8:0,8:96`,0:0,-72H:8,0:16,16 %:0,80P:-128,0:-16,-16:128,0:0,-80P:232,124|+Z*32 :16,16: %D15,18;"";15,20;"":168,524:10 ,0:0,-17:-44,,0:0,17:10 ,0:17,19;"" %Na13 ,15;"N";13 ,26;"S":134,46.:NO:178,40(:SO: %X.11 ,18;"";12 ,18;"":144,84T:-16,0:0,-24:4,0:0,4:40(,0:0,-7:-40(,0:0,3:23677}\,23677}\+40(:4,0:0,16:-16,0 %bG9 ,16;"N";9 ,26;"S";15,17;"LOAD" %l10 ,100d:0,40(:10 ,119w:90Z,0:9 ,3;"Time":60<,100d:10 ,0:eo:3,0;"+I";10 ,0;"-I" %v %311 +32 *SN,120x:4,8: %#5,2+SN*4;"": %C23+32 *SN,128:4,-8:TN=2-SN: %427+32 *SN,120x:4,-8: %#8,4+4*SN;"": %B40(+32 *SN,112p:4,8:SN=SN+1: %156,123{-B:0,16:-4,0:8,0:156,155-B:0,-14:-4,0:8,0: %K11 ,14:0,32 :11 ,31:180,0 %ƛN=010 T:11 +16*N,31:4,8:16,2+2*N;"":23+16*N,40(:4,-8:N: %_N=221:N,16-16*(N>8);(N<9 );7;31;" ":N: %[1:N=0152:12 ,32 +N:200,0:N:0: %7X,Y,3:X+2,Y+2:-4,-4: &|-2,-2:2,2:2,-2:23677}\,23677}\-2:23678~\,23678~\+2: &Y-2,0:2,0:0,-2:23678~\,23678~\+2: &}-2,2:2,-2:-2,-2:23677}\,23677}\+2:23678~\,23678~\+2: &X-2,0:2,0:0,2:23678~\,23678~\-2: &{-2,2:2,-2:2,2:23677}\,23677}\-2:23678~\,23678~\-2: &X0,2:0,-2:2,0:23677}\,23677}\-2: &|2,2:-2,-2:2,-2:23677}\,23677}\-2:23678~\,23678~\+2: &X0,-2:0,2:2,0:23677}\,23677}\-2: &+#0;9 ;" computing ": ' 0"PRESS 'ENTER' FOR THE INDEX. ";I$:20 ' "PRESS 'ENTER'. ";I$: ' "PRESS 'ENTER'. ";I$:: '"TEACH 7"1 '"7""a",168 '& ' '#&&&&&&&&$7 X$_ffff`ffff`` `0HH08T  @|08 @@ $B0"ABx A>G|853530 (I$=""30 2I$>130 0(N=1J=1))):J:N:M 8,133:240,0:N=03:35#+40(*N+40(*(N>1),59;,15:10 +89Y*(N>0)+32 *(N>1)+88X*(N>2),133:20*((N+.5)*),-60<:N s'"THE ATTRACTION BETWEEN CHARGED AND UNCHARGED CONDUCTING SPHERESIS CAUSED BY ELECTROSTATIC INDUCTION." ,SA:"  ELECTROSTATIC INDUCTION " '"THE REPULSION BETWEEN CHARGES OFTHE SAME POLARITY HAS THE EFFECTOF CONCENTRATING THE CHARGE ON THE SURFACE OF THE CONDUCTOR SO THAT THE GREATEST DISTANCE WILL SEPARATE THE INDIVIDUAL CHARGES." '"A NEUTRAL INSULATED METAL SPHERE(MADE NEUTRAL BY BRIEFLY CONNEC-TING IT TO EARTH), WHEN PLACED CLOSE TO A POSITIVELY CHARGED CONDUCTOR, WILL COLLECT NEGATIVECHARGES ON THE PARTS NEAR THE POSITIVE CHARGE AND POSITIVE CHARGES ON THE OPPOSITE SIDE." r'"THE AS MUCH NEGATIVE CHARGE WILLBE INDUCED TO COLLECT ON ONE SIDE AS POSITIVE CHARGE COLLECTSON THE OTHER." 9SA:PS=0:47/,139,27:1370Z {2,4;"+-+-";3,4;"-+-+";4,3;"-+-+-+";5,4;"-+-+";6,4;"+-+-" [3,26-PS;" +++ ";4,26-PS;" + + ";5,26-PS;" +++ " 216-8*PS,132:0,15:4,4:16,0:4,-4:0,-15:-4,-4:-16,0:-4,4 ="0"SB:1400x  0="5"PS=PS+1:PS>16PS=16 .="8"PS=PS-1:PS<0PS=0 'PS=04,3;"-+-+-+" #'PS=14,3;"++-+--" (=PS=63,4;"-+-+";5,4;"-+-+" -=PS=73,4;"++--";5,4;"++--" 2>PS=12 2,4;"+-+-";6,4;"+-+-" 7>PS=13 2,4;"++--";6,4;"++--" <$PS=154,5;"-+" A$PS=164,5;"+-" F=""1350F P 1260 Z11 ,0;"USING KEYS '5' AND '8' YOU CAN MOVE THE POSITIVELY CHARGED BODY TOWARDS OR AWAY FROM THE NEUTRAL SPHERE. THE SEPARATION OF THE CHARGES CAN THEN BE SEEN." d'"PRESS '0' TO GO ON.": x:"THE SEPARATION OF THE CHARGES BYINDUCTION PROVIDES A CUNNING WAYOF CHARGING INSULATED CONDUCTORSFROM A SINGLE CHARGE. TO DO THISA CHARGE IS FIRST BROUGHT CLOSE TO THE CONDUCTOR:" 120x,67C,29 11 ,13 ;"--++";12 ,13 ;"--++";13 ,12 ;"---+++";14,13 ;"--++";15,13 ;"--++" U12 ,19;" --- ";13 ,19;" - - ";14,19;" --- " 160,60<:0,15:4,4:16,0:4,-4:0,-15:-4,-4:-16,0:-4,4  9170# C"THEN AN EARTED PROBE IS MADE TO TOUCH ONE OF THE CHARGED AREAS." /'"USE KEY '8' TO MOVE THE PROBE.":PR=0 Z17,1;"":11 ,40(:0,28:568,0:PR,0 ="8"PR=PR+1 PR=251520  1480 11 ,13 ;" + ";12 ,13 ;" ";13 ,12 ;" + ++";14,13 ;" ";15,13 ;" + +"  9170# O"THE EARTH PROBE IS NOW REMOVED LEAVING THE CONDUCTOR CHARGED POSITIVELY." 1'"USE KEY '5' TO REMOVE THE PROBE.":PR=0 ="5"PR=PR+1 ")92\,68D:1;-PR,0 ,PR>301600@ 6 1560 @9170#:"FINALLY THE NEGATIVELY CHARGED BODY IS REMOVED.":SB:12 ,19;" ";13 ,19;" ";14,19;" " J11 ,13 ;"+ +";12 ,12 ;"+ +";13 ,12 ;"+ +";14,12 ;"+ +";15,13 ;"+ +" T3,0;"THE SAME PROCEDURE CAN BE USED TO PLACE A NEGATIVE CHARGE ON THE CONDUCTOR USING A POSITIVELYCHARGED BODY." ^`"ENTER 'R' TO REVIEW THIS SECTIONPRESS 'ENTER' TO GO ON. ";I$::I$="R"I$="r"1400x h$"  THE PROOF PLANE " rW'"THIS DEVICE CONSISTS SIMPLY OF ATHICK METAL DISC MOUNTED ON AN INSULATING HANDLE." |RN=06:7+N,26;"":N:14,25;6;"" _6,0;"THE PROOF PLANE IS USED"'"TO TRANSFER CHARGES FROM"'"ONE PLACE TO ANOTHER." '"TO DO THIS IT IS FIRST"'"EARTHED BY TOUCHING AN"'"EARTHED CONDUCTOR AND"'"THEN IT IS MADE TO"'"TOUCH THE SURFACE TO"'"BE INVESTIGATED FOR"'"CHARGE. THE CHARGE ACQUIRED CAN THEN BE TRANSFERRED TO ANOTHER BODY, SUCH AS AN ELECTROSCOPE FOR EXAMPLE." *SA:"  CHARGE DISTRIBUTION " '"THE WAY AN ELECTRIC CHARGE IS DISTRUBUTED OVER A SURFACE CAN BE MEASURED USING A PROOF PLANE."''"THIS DISTRIBUTION IS CALLED THE SURFACE DENSITY OF CHARGE." 13 ,8;"+ +";14,6;"+ +";15,15;"+";16,6;"+ +";17,8;"+ +" 72H,30:0,42*,-*1.1 :546,-16,-/10 :0,-10 ,-/1.5@:-546,-16,-/10 K9170#:"PRESS 'ENTER' TO TRANSFER THE CHARGE TO THE ELECTROSCOPE." SX=8:Y=11 :9180#:x=0:y=-24:9100#:9130# SB 1:X=8:Y=11 :9180#:X=0:Y=-24:9130#:0:X=7:Y=26:9180#:X=0:Y=-24:9140# q214,26:9190#:1;12 ,25;"+ +";18,28;"-";14,24;"-" 0,0;"NOTICE THAT THE LEAF DOES NOT DIVERGE VERY MUCH INDICATING A SMALL CHARGE ON THE PROOF PLANE."''"PRESS 'ENTER' TO SAMPLE AT THE 'SHARP' END.";31:9170# 1:X=7:Y=26:9180#:X=0:Y=-24:9140#:0:X=10 :Y=17:9180#:X=0:Y=-24:9130# 1:216,26:214,26:9190#:1;12 ,25;"+ +";18,28;"-";14,24;"-":0 V0,0;"PRESS 'ENTER' TO MEASURE THE CHARGE AT THIS POINT.":9170# &1:X=10 :Y=17:9180#:X=0:Y=-24:9130#:0:X=7:Y=26:9180#:X=0:Y=-24:9160# 0214,26:9190#:214,32 :9190#:1;12 ,24;"++ ++";18,28;"-";17,28;"-";15,24;"-";14,24;"-":0 :~0,0;"IN THIS CASE THE PROOF PLANE HADACQUIRED A MUCH GREATER CHARGE AS SHOWN BY THE GREATER LIFT ON THE LEAF." Dt'"A CAREFUL STUDY OF THE SURFACE DENSITY OF CHARGE SHOWS THAT IS IT PROPORTIONAL TO THE CURVATUREOF THE SURFACE." N_"ENTER 'R' TO REVIEW THIS SECTIONPRESS 'ENTER' TO GO ON. ";I$::I$="R"I$="r"1700 X"  ACTION AT SHARP POINTS "''"THE CURVATURE OF A SHARP POINT IS VERY GREAT AND THE SURFACE DENSITY OF CHARGE AT A POINT CANREACH VERY HIGH VALUES." b'"WITH A VERY HIGH CONCENTRATION OF ELECTRIC CHARGE AIR MOLECULESSTRIKING A SHARP POINT WILL TAKEUP SOME OF THE CHARGE AND, AS THEY ARE MOBILE, DEPART AT GREATSPEED BECAUSE OF THE REPULSION." lx'"ANY AIR MOLECULES ALREADY HAVINGAN OPPOSITE CHARGE TO THAT ON A SHARP POINT WILL BE DRAWN VERY QUICKLY TOWARDS IT." v'"THIS ACTION AT A POINT CONTINUESWHILE THE CHARGE DEPLETES, AT FIRST QUICKLY AND THEN MORE AND MORE GRADUALLY UNTIL EVENTUALLY IT IS LOST ALTOGETHER." SA:"  DETERMINING THE POLARITY "''"THE ELECTROSCOPE CAN BE USED TO COMPARE THE POLARITY OF ANOTHER CHARGE WITH A CHARGE OF KNOWN POLARITY ALREADY ON IT." '"THE UNKNOWN CHARGE IS BROUGHT, FROM TWO METRES AWAY AT LEAST, CLOSE TO THE ELECTROSCOPE WHICH HAS A SMALL KNOWN CHARGE ON IT ALREADY." s'"TWO CHARGES OF THE SAME POLARITYCAUSE THE LEAF ALREADY DIVERGINGSLIGHTLY, TO STEADILY DIVERGE MORE AND MORE." '"DIFFERENT CHARGES CAUSE THE LEAFTO FALL TO EXACTLY NEUTRAL AND THEN DIVERGE ONCE MORE AS THE UNKNOWN CHARGE APPROACHES.":SA:SG=0 :"PRESS KEYS '6' TO"'"SEE THE EFFECT OF"'"THE UNKNOWN CHARGE ON"'"THE ELECTROSCOPE.":X=0:Y=-32 :9100#:9140# 5,0;"THE CHARGE ON THE"'"ELECTROSCOPE IS"'("POSITIVE"SG);("NEGATIVE"SG);"."''"NOTICE THE LEAF'S"'"BEHAVIOR AND"'"DEDUCE THE SIGN"'"OF THE CHARGE."''"PRESS 'A' FOR"'"CONFIRMATION,"'"'1' TO START AGAIN"'"AND '0' TO GO ON."  9500% =""1980  ="6"N=N+1:9300T$ "="1"SG=1-SG:1960 ="0":10 E="A"Ŧ="a"N,26;("-"ú((CH-SG)+.1}L));("+"ƺ(CH-SG))  1980 *:"  INSULATORS - CONDUCTORS " ڄ'"THE MYSTERIES OF ELECTRIC CHARGEARE QUICKLY DISPELLED WHEN IT ISTHOUGHT OF AS A DEFICIENCY OR A SURPLUS OF ELECTRONS IN A BODY." '"THE ELECTRON IS AN ELEMENTARY PARTICLE (ONE THAT CANNOT BREAK INTO SMALLER PARTICLES) WITH A NEGATIVE CHARGE. THE MASS OF THEELECTRON IS SO SMALL THAT IT IS OFTEN IGNORED IN PRACTICE." '"SINCE ELECTRONS ORBIT AROUND THENUCLEUS OF ALL ATOMS AND THESE IN TURN MAKE UP ALL MATTER, THE FLOW OF ELECTRIC CHARGE THROUGH A SUBSTANCE CAN BE RELATED TO THE PASSAGE OF ELECTRONS FROM ONE ATOM TO THE NEXT." SA:"IN SOME SUBSTANCES, METALS FOR EXAMPLE, THE ORBITING ELECTRONS ARE NOT ALL HELD STRONGLY BY THENUCLEUS AND SOME ELECTRONS CAN DRIFT EASILY FROM ONE ATOM TO THE NEXT." '"IN OTHER SUBSTANCES, POLYTHENE FOR EXAMPLE, THE ELECTRONS ARE IN FIXED ORBITS AND DIFFICULT TODISLODGE FROM THEM, DIFFICULT BUT NOT IMPOSSIBLE."  '"A FEW SUBSTANCES, SUCH AS VERY PURE GERMANIUM FOR EXAMPLE, ARE TERMED SEMICONDUCTORS. THESE DO NOT CONDUCT ELECTRICITY WELL AS MOST METALS DO YET THEY CONDUCT SUFFICIENTLY TO EXCLUDE THEM AS INSULATORS." SA:"SEMICONDUCTORS CAN BE MADE TO CONDUCT ELECTRICITY VERY WELL BYTHE ADDITION OF TRACES OF OTHER ELEMENTS (DOPING) AND DEVELOP SPECIAL ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES, ALLOWING CURRENT TO GO ONE WAY ONLY FOR EXAMPLE, AT THE SAME TIME."  m'"SEMICONDUCTORS HAVE VERY MANY USES AND HAVE LARGELY SUPERCEDEDTHERMIONIC VALVES IN ELECTRONIC DEVICES." *'"THOUGH INSULATORS HAVE ELECTRONSIN FIXED ORBITS IN THEIR ATOMS, WHEN SUFFICIENTLY HIGH POTENTIALDISRUPTS THESE ORBITS THEN THE INSULATION BREAKS DOWN AND THEN A HEAVY DISCHARGE OF ELECTRICITYFOLLOWS." 4SA:"THIS BREAKDOWN OF INSULATION CANBE SEEN VIVIDLY DURING A THUNDERSTORM. HERE THE AIR INSULATION BREAKS DOWN UNDER THE VERY HIGH POTENTIAL (MILLIONS OF VOLTS) BETWEEN THE CLOUDS AND BETWEEN THE CLOUDS AND EARTH." >'"THE LIGHTNING FOLLOWS AT ONCE AND THE VAST ENERGY DISCHARGED CAUSES THE RAPID EXPANSION AND COLLAPSE OF AIR WHICH IS HEARD AS A CLAP OF THUNDER." HSZ ':"  CATHODE RAY TUBE." '"A RED HOT TUNGSTEN WIRE SEALED IN A VACUUM EMITS ELECTRONS TO ANOTHER WIRE WHICH IS HELD AT A POSITIVE POTENTIAL RELATIVE TO THE TUNGSTEN. A HEATED NICKEL TUBE COATED WITH MIXED OXIDES OFBARIUM AND STRONTIUM GIVES MUCHGREATER CURRENTS." 0S229,16:0,8:6,0,-:0,-8:240,32 :2,-2:210,18:16,16:232,60<:0,20:14,28;"";17,28;"":218,58::28,0,-:0,-24:-28,0,-:0,24 :I14,25;"+a";17,25;"-c";20,28;"ht" D*11 ,0;"THIS THERMIONIC EFFECT"'"IS USED IN THE DIODE"'"VALVE SHOWN IN THE"'"DIAGRAM. THE CATHODE (c)"'"IS NEGATIVE TO THE"'"ANODE (a) AND IS HEATED"'"BY A HEATING COIL (ht)."'"ELECTRONS CAN FLOW FROM"'"THE CATHODE TO THE ANODE"'"BUT NOT THE OTHER WAY"'"BECAUSE THE ANODE IS COLD." NsSA:"THERMIONIC EMMISION IS THE BASISOF CATHODE RAY TUBES WHICH ARE USED FOR OSCILLOSCOPES AND FOR TELEVISION." X}'"THE ELECTRONS ARE EMITTED FROM AHEATED FILAMENT, PASSING THROUGHA HOLE IN THE CATHODE UNDER THE ATTRACTION OF THE ANODE." b236,58::-1,1:-568,0:-148,22:-2,-2:0,-524:2,-2:148,22:568,0:1,1:0,10 v13 ,23;"aa g c":240,557:-8,0:0,-4,:8,0:234,579:-10 ,0:0,-8:10 ,0:1;224,535:15,30;"ht" 16,23;1;"++ - 0V":N=01:M=03:186+8*M*(M2),557-4*N:5,0:M:N SB:9200#:"THE ELECTRONS PASS THROUGH A CONTROL TUBE, g, WHICH IS HELD AT A VARIABLE NEGATIVE POTENTIALRELATIVE TO THE CATHODE." b'"THE CONTROL ELECTRODE GOVERNS THE CURRENT OF ELECTRONS IN THE BEAM COMING FROM THE CATHODE." SB:9200#:"THE ANODES, a, ARE SIMPLY A SET OF ACCURATELY PLACED TUBES AT A POSITIVE POTENTIAL ACCELERATING AND FOCUSSING THE ELECTRON BEAM ONTO THE SCREEN." '"THE SCREEN CONSISTS OF A COATINGOF CAREFULLY BLENDED CHEMICALS (PHOSPHOR COATING) THAT EMIT A PINPOINT OF LIGHT WHEN STRUCK BYTHE ELECTRON BEAM." 7N=16:11 +N,2;"SCREEN"(N):N SB:9200#:"X- AND Y- DEFLECTING PLATES, ACCURATELY SET AT RIGHT ANGLES TO EACH OTHER, CAN DEFLECT THE ELECTRON BEAM FROM SIDE TO SIDE OR UP AND DOWN WHEN A SUITABLE POTENTIAL IS APPLIED TO THEM ANDSO MAKE A TRACE APPEAR ON THE SCREEN." 160,47/:-14,0:0,13 :14,0:0,-13 :166,47/:3,3:10 ,0:166,59;:3,-3:10 ,0 ڈ12 ,21;"+";17,21;"-":N=01983:228-N,535+.1}L*(N-546)*(N>546):N SB:9200#:"THE BRIGHTNESS OF THE BEAM SPOT ON THE SCREEN IS CONTROLLED WITHTHE BEAM CURRENT WHICH IS SET BYTHE CONTROL TUBE POTENTIAL, g." usa:"THE TRACE DRAWN ON THE SCREEN IS CONTROLLED BY THE VOLTAGE OF THE 'SIGNAL' APPLIED TO THE X- AND Y-PLATES." o'"THE SIMPLEST DEFLECTION IS FROM LEFT TO RIGHT BY THE APPLICATIONOF A 'SAWTOOTH' WAVEFORM TO THE X- PLATES:"  9400$ 'M=03:N=170F 99 +(N/2)+35#*M,579+(.25~*N) RTR;9 +((N-1)/2)+35#*M,579+(.25~*(N-1)): 161+N,60< TR;160+N,60< ="T"Ŧ="t"TR=0 ="0"33804 N 44,+35#*M,74J TR;0,-18 M * 3350 4%:9400$:16,0;"Y" >0,0;"THIS IS THE PRINCIPLE OF THE OSCILLOSCOPE. A SAWTOOTH VOLTAGEIS APPLIED TO THE X-PLATES AT A FIXED FREQUENCY,- THE TIME BASE." H'"AT THE SAME TIME A 'SIGNAL' IS APPLIED TO THE Y-PLATES. BELOW IS SHOWN THE DISPLAY WHEN A STEADY d.c. SIGNAL IS APPLIED:" RWM=03:N=170F:161+N,75K:TR;160+N,75K \="0"9230$:3460 f="T"Ŧ="t"TR=0 pX9 +N/2+35#*M,72H:TR;8+N/2+35#*M,72H:N:M z 3410R I:9400$:16,0;"Y";#1;1,0;31 0,0;"WHEN THE SIGNAL ON THE Y-PLATES CHANGES WITH TIME THE WAVEFORM IS DISPLAYED ON THE SCREEN."''"BELOW IS SHOWN THE DISPLAY FOR ASINE WAVE VOLTAGE APPLIED TO THEY-PLATES BUT NOT SYNCHRONISED WITH THE TIME BASE:" K=-112:M=03:J=-112:N=136$:179+18*J+N,60<+K*J*20*S(N+9 *M) ="0"3530 ="T"Ŧ="t"TR=0 N18+N/2+36$*M+9 *J,72H-J*10 *S(N):N:J:M:K 3480 ʍ:"IN MOST OSCILLOSCOPES THERE IS ACIRCUIT THAT SYNCHRONISES THE TIME BASE WITH THE SIGNAL ON THEY-PLATES. THE DISPLAY IS THEN STEADY:" Ԏ9400$:16,0;"Y";#1;1,0;31;2,0;31;1,0;"PRESS '0' FOR THE INDEX." vM=03:J=-112:N=136$:179+18*J+N,60<+K*J*20*S(N) ="0"10 ="T"Ŧ="t"TR=0 K18+N/2+36$*M+9 *J,72H-J*10 *S(N):N:J:M  3550  ':"  ATOMIC STRUCTURE " '"ALL MATTER IS COMPOSED OF ATOMS OF MATTER. EACH ATOM IS A MEMBEROF A SET OF THE SAME TYPE TERMEDAN ELEMENT. SOME 100 DIFFERENT ELEMENTS ARE KNOWN, ONLY A FEW, MOSTLY METALS, ARE SEEN OUTSIDE A CHEMICAL LABORATORY." _'"THE ATOM COMPRISES TWO PRINCIPALPARTS: THE CENTRAL NUCLEUS AND THE SURROUNDING ELECTRONS." V'"THE NUCLEUS ITSELF IS MADE UP OFNUCLEONS OF TWO KINDS: PROTONS AND NEUTRONS." w'"THE MASS OF THE ATOM RESIDES IN THE NUCLEUS WHICH IS VERY SMALL INDEED,- ITS DENSITY IS VAST, ABOUT 10^15 kg/m." ҆SA:"THE NUCLEON NUMBER (ATOMIC MASS NUMBER) IS THE TOTAL SUM OF THE NUCLEONS IN THE ATOMS, i.e. THE PROTONS PLUS THE NEUTRONS." ܾ'"THE ATOMIC NUMBER IS THE NUMBER OF PROTONS IN THE NUCLEUS AND ITCHARACTERISES THE ELEMENT. THUS ALL CARBON ATOMS (At.No. 6) HAVESIX PROTONS IN THEIR NUCLEUS, GOLD ATOMS HAVE 79." '"PROTONS ARE NUCLEONS THAT CARRY A POSITIVE CHARGE. THEY REPEL EACH OTHER WITH IMMENSE FORCE. A NUCLEUS MAY BE THOUGHT OF AS A DEEP CONCENTRATION OF HATRED." '"NEUTRONS ARE UNCHARGED NUCLEONS AND 'KEEP THE PEACE' IN THE ATOMBY INCREASING THE GRAVITATIONAL FIELD AND BY ELECTRIC INDUCTION." SA:"THE TOTAL MASS OF ONE ATOM IS ABOUT 10^-26 kg."''"BECAUSE OF THIS VERY SMALL MASS A UNIT OF AMOUNT OF SUBSTANCE HAS BEEN DEFINED TO CONTAIN 6.03*10^23 INDIVIDUAL PARTICLES."''"THESE PARTICLES MAY BE ATOMS, NUCLEONS, ELECTRONS OR ANYTHING." '"THE UNIT OF AMOUNT OF SUBSTANCE IS CALLED THE MOLE (SYMBOL: mol)AND IT IS DEFINED AS THE NUMBER OF ATOMS IN 0.012 kg OF CARBON OF NUCLEON MASS (ATOMIC MASS NUMBER) 12." SA:"ELECTRONS ARE EVEN SMALLER THAN NUCLEONS HAVING ABOUT 2000 TIMESLESS MASS. THEY HAVE A NEGATIVE CHARGE EQUAL IN MAGNITUDE TO THEPOSITIVE CHARGE ON A PROTON." V'"THE NUMBER OF ELECTRONS EXACTLY EQUALS THE NUMBER OF PROTONS IN THE NEUTRAL ATOM." "y'"THE ELECTRONS ORBIT THE NUCLEUS IN CIRCULAR AND ELLIPTIC ORBITS EACH HAVING A PARTICULAR ENERGY ASSOCOIATED WITH IT." ,'"THE ORBITS ARE NOT STATIONARY. THE FOLLOWING DIAGRAM SHOWS SOMEELECTRONIC ORBITS FOR A HYDROGENATOM WHICH HAS ONE ELECTRON BUT EVEN THIS SIMPLE STRUCTURE GIVESRISE TO A COMPLEX ORBIT PATTERN." 6_SA:"A CIRCULAR ORBIT APPEARS AS A SERIES OF ELLIPSES AS THE ATOM ROTATES ABOUT ITS AXIS:" @15,14;"" JS(72H):C(72H) T115s,513,32 ^0K=136$9 :N=172H `iK=1S(N)=.001wn*(1000*(N*/36$)):C(N)=.001wn*(1000*(N*/36$)) b`115s+30*C(K)*C(N)-10 *S(N)*S(K),513+10 *S(N)*C(K)+30*C(N)*S(K) dN:K hSB:9210# r"AN ELLIPTIC ORBIT WILL TAKE THE ELECTRON CLOSER TO THE NUCLEUS AND THE ORBIT ALSO ROTATES ABOUTTHE ATOM WITH THE NUCLEUS AT A FOCUS:" |1K=172H12 :N=172H |115s+20*C(K)+30*C(K)*C(N)-10 *S(N)*S(K),513+20*S(K)+10 *S(N)*C(K)+30*C(N)*S(K) N:K SB:9210# w"THE RESULT OF ALL THESE ORBITS, AND MAY MORE NOT SHOWN, IS TO MAKE THE ATOMIC RADIUS A RATHER INDEFINITE CONCEPT." SA:"WHEN THE ORBITING ELECTRONS DO NOT EQUAL THE NUMBER OF PROTONS THEN AN ION IS PRODUCED. THE IONWILL BE POSITIVE WHEN ONE OR MORE ELECTRONS HAVE BEEN LOST FROM THE NEUTRAL ATOM. WHEN ONE OR MORE ELECTRONS ARE GAINED A NEGATIVE ION IS PRODUCED." X'"METALLIC ELEMENTS GENERALLY MAKEPOSITIVE IONS WHEREAS NON-METALSGIVE NEGATIVE IONS." ¥'"A BEAM OF POSITIVE OR NEGATIVE IONS PRODUCED IN A HIGH VACUUM CAN BE DEFLECTED BY AN ELECTRIC OR A MAGNETIC FIELD JUST AS IN THE CASE OF A BEAM OF ELECTRONS." c'"THE MUCH GREATER MASS OF IONS, HOWEVER, MAKES THE DEFELCTION OFIONIC BEAMS RELATIVELY SLIGHT." #SA:"  ISOTOPES " w'"ATOMS HAVING THE SAME ATOMIC NUMBER BUT DIFFERENT NUCLEON NUMBER (ATOMIC MASS NUMBER) ARE TERMED ISOTOPES." j'"ALL ELEMENTS HAVE ISOTOPES IN THEIR NATURAL STATES THOUGH IN SOME CASES THE ISOTOPES ARE VERYRARE." '"SINCE THE ISOTOPES OF A GIVEN ELEMENT ALL HAVE THE SAME ATOMICNUMBER THE DIFFERENCE IS IN THE NEUTRON CONTENT OF THE NUCLEUS." z'"NATURALLY OCCURRING ELEMENTS CANHAVE UNSTABLE ISOTOPES WHICH DECOMPOSE WITH THE PRODUCTION OFRADIOACTIVE EMISSION." SA:"THE PRESENT DESCRIPTIVE NOTATIONFOR AN ATOMIC NUCLEUS IS WRITTENWITH THE ATOMIC NUMBER (Z) AS A SUFFIX AND THE NUCLEON NUMBER (ATOMIC MASS NUMBER, A) ABOVE ITFOLLOWED BY THE CHEMICAL SYMBOL OF THE ELEMENT:" '"DESCRIPTION WRITTEN AS:"''26;"6"'"LITHIUM ................ Li"'26;"3"''26;"1"'"NEUTRON ................ n"'26;"0"''26;"4"'"HELIUM ................. He"'26;"2"; sz !:"  RADIOACTIVITY " p'"THE NUCELUS OF A RADIOACTIVE ATOM GENERALLY GIVES RISE TO THREE TYPES OF RAYS WHEN IT DECOMPOSES." o'"ALPHA RADIATION (-RAYS) WHICH IS CHARACTERISED BY ITS POSITIVECHARGE AND POOR PENETRATING POWER." a'"BETA RADIATION (-RAYS) WHICH ISNEAGTIVELY CHARGED AND MUCH MOREPENETRATING THAN -RAYS." ['"GAMMA RADIATION (-RAYS) WHICH HAVE NO CHARGE AND VERY HIGH PENETRATING POWER." SA:"THE NATURE OF THESE EMISSIONS HAS BEEN STUDIED BY OBSERVING THEIR BEHAVIOUS IN A MAGNETIC AND IN AN ELECTRIC FIELD. THEIR PRESENCE BEING SHOWN BY THEIR EFFECT ON PHOTOGRAPHIC PAPER ANDBY THE CLOUD CHAMBER TRACKS THEYMAKE."  '"MAGNETIC FIELD EFFECTS." '"A RADIOACTIVE SOURCE PLACED IN A'LEAD BOX' WITH A SMALL HOLE IS USED TO PRODUCE A NARROW BEAM OFRADIATION. THE RAYS PASS BETWEENTHE POLES OF A POWERFUL MAGNET AND FALL ON PHOTOGRAPHIC PAPER." <'"A DIAGRAM OF THIS EXPERIMENT IS SHOWN ON THE NEXT PAGE." ISA:A=0:B=A:G=A:FL=0:AL=0:BT=0:9600% #1;"PRESS '0' TO GO ON.":143,535,7:0,0;"THE MAGNETIC FIELD IS NORMAL TO THE SCREEN."''"NOTICE THAT THE -RAY DEFLECTIONIS MUCH GREATER THAN THAT OF THE-RAY AND IN OPPOSITE DIRECTION." 13 ,15;"MAGNET"  9620%:9670%  5120 (:A=0:B=0:G=0:"DEFELCTION BY AN ELECTRIC FIELD PRODUCES A SIMILAR RESULT:";#1;"PRESS '0' TO GO ON." 2 9600% < 9680% F9620%:9690% P 5190F Z:A=0:B=0:G=0:FL=1:"INTERPOSING A VERY THIN SHEET OFALUMINIUM FOIL IN THE PATH OF THE RADIOACTIVE EMISSION RESULTSIN THE BLOCKING OF SOME OF THE RAYS:" \P'"- AND - RAYS STILL PENETRATE THE BARRIER.";#1;"PRESS '0' TO GO ON." d 9600% nMAL=1:18,14;"FOIL":123{,40(:0,24 x 9680% 9620%:9700%  5250 :A=0:B=0:G=0:"A 10 mm THICK SHEET OF ALUMINIUMSTOPS MORE OF THE RADIATION."''"NOW ONLY -RAYS CAN GET THROUGH.";#1;"PRESS '0' TO GO ON." fBT=1:N=16:120x+N,40(:0,24:N:18,14;"SHEET" 9600%:9680% 9620%:9710%  5300 .:X=0:"  THE CLOUD CHAMBER " '"AIR SATURATED WITH WATER VAPOUR CAN BE COOLED WELL BELOW THE DEWPOINT WITHOUT MIST FORMING WHEN THE AIR IS FREE FROM DUST AND OTHER IONIC PARTICLES. THE AIR IS THEN SUPERSATURATED AND WILL READILY FORM MIST WHEN IONS ARE INTRODUCED." ܙ'"THIS PRINCIPLE IS USED IN THE WILSON CLOUD CHAMBER. THE AIR INTHE CHAMBER IS SUDDENLY COOLED BY LOWERING THE PRESSURE RAPIDLYWITH A PISTON PUMP." '"THE RADIOACTIVE SOURCE IN THE CHAMBER EMITS RAYS ALL THE TIME BUT AS SOON AS THE TEMPERATURE FALLS THE PARTICLE'S TRACKS CAN BE SEEN AS CONDENSATION STREAKS." SA:"THE ARRANGEMENT IS SHOWN BELOW. THE CHAMBER IS ILLUMINATED FROM ABOVE AND PHOTOGRAPHED AS SOON AS THE AIR IS COOLED. THE AIR QUICKLY FILLS WITH MIST AFTER THAT."  9800H& 192,40(:0,20:-36$,0:0,22:1,0:0,-1:79O,0:0,1:1,0:0,-22:-36$,0:0,-20 160,64@:72H,0:193,546:8,0:0,-2:-4,0:0,-16:-1,0:0,16:-3,0 "10 ,13 ;"SOURCE WINDOW";12 ,23;"AIR";15,26;"PISTON";16,17;"DARK";17,16;"SCREEN";20,2;"TOP VIEW SIDE SECTION" ,176,64@:-16,-16:196,502:10 ,0:165,71G:-16,16:156,70F:8,0:0,-2:3,0:0,6:-3,0:0,-2:-8,0 6'SA:"  CLOUD CHAMBER TRACKS " @'"ALPHA PARTICLES WITH A NUCLEON MASS OF 4, TWO PROTONS AND TWO NEUTRONS, CHARGE THROUGH THE AIRLEAVING STRAIGHT TRACKS UNTIL THEY STRIKE AN AIR MOLECULE AND THEIR ENERGY IS DISSIPATED." JX=77M:9805M& Tf1:N=010 :98b,59;:10 +*40(,-30+*60<:N:0 ^SA:"BETA PARTICLES MAKE CURVED PATHSFROM THE STARTING POINT IN THE SOURCE. THE BETA PERTICLE IS A HIGH SPEED ELECTRON AND ITS MASSIS SO SLIGHT THAT IT IS EASILY DEFLECTED FROM A STRAIGHT PATH." h9805M&:1:N=010 :98b,59;:10 +*30,-20+*40(,1-2*:10 +*20,-10 +20*,1-2*:N:0 rSA:"GAMMA RAYS ARE SIMILAR TO VERY HIGH FREQUENCY X-RAYS AND LEAVE NO TRACKS SINCE THEY HAVE NO ELECTRIC CHARGE BUT THEY DO RIP OFF ELECTRONS FROM AIR MOLECULESAS THEY PASS THROUGH AND IT IS THESE ELECTRONS THAT LEAVE THE TRACKS." | 9805M&: 1:N=040(:108l+502*,39'+40(*:15-30*,10 -20*,1-2*:N:0 %SA:"  RADIOACTIVE DECAY " '"ALL RADIOACTIVE SUBSTANCES WILL GRADUALLY DIMINISH IN ACTIVITY OVER A SUFFICIENTLY LONG PERIOD.AS THEY DECAY THEY NOT ONLY EMITRADIATION BUT ALSO GIVE RISE TO SMALLER GROUPS OF NUCLEONS WHICHTHEMSELVES MAY BE RADIOACTIVE." '"THE PROCESS OF DECAY CONTINUES UNTIL THE FINAL NUCLEAR SPECIES ARE 'STABLE', i.e. THEY GIVE NO EVIDENCE OF RADIOACTIVITY." '"VARIOUS DEVICES HAVE BEEN MADE TO MEASURE RADIOACTIVITY. THE Geiger-Muller TUBE IS A FAMILIAREXAMPLE FOR MEASURING -PARTICLEEMMISION." SA:"THE INNER IONISATION CHAMBER IS SHIELDED FROM ALPHA PARTICLES BYTHE GLASS WALL. ONLY -PARTICLESCAN ENTER TO IONISE THE GAS IN BETWEEN THE ELECTRODES." 130,26:-12 ,0:0,32 :32 ,0:0,-32 :-12 ,0:0,-8:-8,0,-:0,8:8,0 ”122z,26:0,-10 :1,0:0,10 :146,26:0,-10 :1,0:0,10 120x,58::0,68D:2,0:0,-62>:4,0:0,480:16,0,-:0,-480:4,0:0,62>:2,0:0,-68D }122z,126~:25,0:134,58::0,546:126~,64@:16,0,/5 N=08:130,112p-5*N:5,-3:2,0:1,1:0,1:-5,-1:-3,-2:0,-1:N:0,-8  1:9900& SB:9240$:"THE IONISATION CHAMBER CONTAINS A LOW PRESSURE INERT GAS WITH A TRACE OF BROMINE. WHEN IONISED BY A -PARTICLE IT CONDUCTS A PULSE OF CURRENT BETWEEN THE TWOELECTRODES." SB:9240$:"EACH TIME A -PARTICLE ENTERS THE IONISATION CHAMBER A PULSE OF CURRENT IS PRODUCED BETWEEN THE ELECTRODES AND THIS CAN BE MADE TO OPERATE A COUNTER." SB:9240$:"THE NUMBER OF -PARTICLES THAT ARE COUNTED IN A GIVEN PERIOD, USUALLY A MINUTE, MEASURES THE 'ACTIVITY' OF THE SUBSTANCE AT APARTICULAR TIME." ]SA:"THE ACTIVITY, i.e. THE COUNT PERMINUTE (IN KILO PULSES), CAN BE PLOTTED AGAINST TIME:" ;16,140:0,-120x:230,0 &n=0568:16+4*n,20:0,1:0,-3*(n=5*(n/5)):16,20+4*n*(n<30):1,0:-3*(n=5*(n/5)),0:n 0n=14:20,1+5*n;10 *n;19-5*n*(n<3),0;((10 *n)n<3):n :A20,23;"Time(min)";4,2;1;"kppm" D"sb:n=1220.5 N0n+17,100d*(-.017{ C*n)+20 Xn bSB:9250"$:"NOTICE HOW THE ACTIVITY FALLS TOA HALF OF THE PREVIOUS VALUE EVERY TEN MINUTES. THIS IS THE SUBSTANCE'S HALF LIFE PERIOD." l(sa:"  RADIOACTIVITY HALF-LIFE " v~'"THE ACTIVITY OF A RADIOACTIVE ISOTOPE IS REDUCED TO ONE HALF OF ITS INITIAL VALUE WHEN ONE HALF-LIFE PERIOD ELAPSES." '"THE HALF-LIFE OF A PARTICULAR ISOTOPE IS A CHARACTERISTIC OF THAT ISOTOPE AND INVARIANT,- IT DOES NOT CHANGE WITH PRESSURE ORTEMPERATURE OR ANYTHING ELSE." '"EXAMPLE:"''"IODINE OF NUCLEON NUMBER 131 HASA HALF-LIFE OF 8 d. WHAT WILL BE THE ACTIVITY OF A SOLUTION OFPOTASSIUM IODIDE AFTER 40 d WHENINITIALLY IT WAS 182 kpps?" sb:''"THERE ARE 5 HALF-LIFE PERIODS IN40 DAYS SO THE ORIGINAL ACTIVITYOF 182 kpps IS REDUCED TO:"''" 182***** = 5.7 kpps" n=07::n )sa:"  SOME USEFUL APPLICATIONS " Ƅ'"IN MEDICINE RADIOACTIVE ISOTOPESHAVE FOUND VALUABLE USE AS A SOURCE OF RADIATION FOR THE TREATMENT OF ACCESSIBLE CANCER." Є'"THE PRODUCTION OF RADIOACTIVE ISOTOPES OF TECNECIUM HAS MADE A GREAT CONTRIBUTION IN METHODS OF LOCATING TUMORS IN THE BODY." '"THIS IS AN EXAMPLE OF A 'TRACER'TECHNIQUE IN WHICH THE RADIO AC-TIVE COMPOUND IS INJECTED INTO THE PATIENT AND EVENTUALLY IT CONCENTRATES IN THE DISEASED REGION. THE RADIOACTIVITY IS SENSED WITH A SCANNER AND THE TROUBLE LOCATED." aSA:"IN INDUSTRY THE PENETRATION OF -RAYS IS USED FOR EXAMINING HEAVY CASTINGS FOR FLAWS." "IN THIS APPLICATION THE CASTING IS EXPOSED TO -RAYS FROM AN IRIDIUM-192 OR COBALT-60 SOURCE AND THE 'PICTURE' OBTAINED FROM PHOTOGRAPHIC PAPER PLACED ON THE'OTHER SIDE' OF THE CASTING." w'"PERHAPS THE MOST UNIVERSALLY BENEFICIAL APPLICATION OF RADIO-ACTIVE ISOTOPES IS IN ATOMIC ENERGY PRODUCTION." SZ #10 -Y/8,26+X/8;"":216+X,92\+Y:17,0:0,-480:-42*,0:0,480:16,0 #209+X,102f+Y:-16,0:0,1:36$,0:0,-1:-19,0:0,-34":1,0:0,-16:1,0:0,16:1,0:0,34" #j233+X,44,+Y:10 ,0:0,-4:17-Y/8,30+X/8;"": #>213+X,67C+Y:1,0:0,-15: #>213+X,67C+Y:1,0:4,-14: #>213+X,67C+Y:1,0:7,-14: #?213+X,67C+Y:1,0:11 ,-11 : #ISB:N=07:N,0;31;" ":N:0,0;: #:n=13:x+n,y;"":n:x+n,y-1;"": #@4,0:1;-2,-3:0,5: #NN=10 0-1:N,0;31;" ";0,0;:N: #MN=80-1:N,0;31;" ";0,0;:N: $]S(72H):N=071G:S(N+1)=.001wn*(1000*(N*/36$)):N: $MN=50-1:N,0;31;" ";0,0;:N: $"MN=30-1:N,0;31;" ";0,0;:N: $T8CHN=21:9140#:0:9130# $V9CHN=61:9140#:0:9150# $X9CHN=9 1:9150#:0:9160# $Z8CHN=61:9130#:0:9140# $\8CHN=81:9140#:0:9150# $^9CHN=10 1:9150#:0:9160# $hN>11 N=11 $r-N-1,26;" ";N,26;"?" $| $11 ,0;"+"'"V";15,10 ;"Time";16,1;"-PLATE POTENTIAL":8,86V:0,-30:144,0:196,60<,42* $I#1;"PRESS 'T'LEAVE A TRACE."'"PRESS '0' TO GO ON.":TR=1: %CH=(+.73333):CH=(CH-SG) %&N=1:9330r$: %80P,40(:24,0:0,12 :-12 ,0:0,-4:-3,0:0,10 :3,0:0,-4:12 ,0:0,12 :-24,0:0,-25 % 173,10 :0,70F:14,22;"";15,22;"";19,22;"";11 ,8;"EMISSION"'9 ;"SOURCE";11 ,23;"PARTICLE";12 ,23;"COUNT";17,10 ;"LEAD";18,10 ;"BOX": %URAY=10 *:A=A+(RAY>7):B=B+(RAY<3):G=G+(RAY7RAY3) %N=083S4:1:87W+N,535+(N-44,)*.2~L*(N>40()*(RAY>7)-(N-524)*(N>480)*(RAY<3):0 %n91[+N,535+(N-40()*.2~L*(N>40()*(RAY>7)-(N-480)*(N>480)*(RAY<3) %N>30ALRAY>7 %N>30BTRAY<3 %FL123{,535 %N %w14+(RAY<7)+4*(RAY<3),24;(ARAY>7);(BRAY<3);(GRAY7RAY3) % %="0"5160( % %Ч132,568:8,0:3,3:132,502:8,0:3,-3:14,16;1;"-";16,16;"+": %="0"5210Z % %="0"5270 % %="0"5320 % &H C(72H) &J/N=172H:C(N)=((72H-N)*N):N &M502+X,60<,41):502+X,60<,38&:502+X,60<,36$:N=172H:513+X-C(N),96`-N:2*C(N),0:N &R1:10 +X,58::8,0:0,-2:3,0:0,6:-3,0:0,-2:-8,0:0 &\ &V6,20;"GLASS";7,20;"WALLED";8,4;"SPIRAL";8,20;"LIQUIDS";9 ,4;"ELECTRODE";9 ,20;"CHAMBER";12 ,4;"IONISATION";12 ,20;"CENTRAL";13 ,4;"CHAMBER";13 ,20;"ELECTRODE";19,20;"PLUG";20,20;"CONNECTION" &112p,75K:16,0:80P,108l:480,0:145,110n:12 ,0:135,66B:22,0:140,20:18,0 & 0: ' A"PRESS 'ENTER' TO RETURN TO THE INDEX PAGE. ";I$::10 ' "PRESS 'ENTER'. ";I$: ' "PRESS 'ENTER'. ";I$:: ' '"TEACH 8"1